Introductory Chemistry - A Foundation [Hybrid]

650 Pages·2011·72.017 MB·English

by  S. Zumdahl, et. al.,

75708_FM_CORE_i-xxv.qxd 1/12/10 4:17 PM Page iii
SEVENTH EDITION
Introductory Chemistry
A F O U N D A T I O N
H Y B R I D E D I T I O N
Steven S. Zumdahl
University of Illinois
Donald J. DeCoste
University of Illinois
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
The results are in–and they
prove that OWL will help you
study smarter and succeed
in chemistry!
OWL (Online Web Learning)
The Chemist’s Choice. The Student’s Solution.
Use OWL in conjunction with Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation, Hybrid, 7e, with OWL
to increase your success in the course!
OWL contains all your book’s end-of-chapter questions—PLUS a built-in eBook.
Using OWL’s book-specifi c interactive problems and this textbook, you’ll master problem-solving
techniques and build your understanding of chemistry concepts.
OWL for Introductory/Preparatory Chemistry offers:
(cid:129) A wide range of assignment types—tutorials, interactive simulations, and algorithmically generated homework
questions that provide instant answer-specifi c feedback.

“ I attribute my good grade in this course largely to OWL.”
Student, University of Michigan
“ I liked the step-by-step tutorials and having all the
charts (periodic table, etc.) a click away.”
Student, Texas A&M University
Use the bound-in access card that came with this text to access
OWL: Online Web Learning and its built-in eBook.
For more details on OWL, visit www.cengage.com/OWL
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
7755770088__ZZuummddaahhll__EEnnddppaappeerr__aadd..iinndddd 11 11//1144//1100 22::5500::3355 PPMM
H O W T O U S E O W L
OWL Information Menu Bar
At the top of each question page, you can click Chemical Formulas or Scientifi c Notation on
the information menu bar.
Chemical Formulas Scientifi c Notation Periodic Table Tables
Periodic Table and Tables on the left menu take you to additional resources in OWL. You can also
access these resources by choosing Chemistry Tables from the left navigation menu on most OWL
screens.
Answer Formatting in OWL
Like most online homework systems, when you answer questions in OWL, your responses must
be correctly formatted in order to be graded. For some answers, you must enter superscripts
and subscripts in your answer. Proper answer formatting is especially important when entering
chemical formulas, mathematical equations, and units of measurement. Improper formatting will
lead to otherwise correct answers being marked wrong.
Be sure to complete the Intro to OWL assignments to learn the basics of answer formatting
and setting up your browser correctly. Answer formatting basics are summarized in the Chemical
Formulas screen below (accessible from the information menu bar on any question page):
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
7755770088__ZZuummddaahhll__OOWWLL..iinndddd 11 11//1144//1100 1100::3399::3399 AAMM
Using the Chemical Formula Input Tool
Use the Chemical Formula Input Tool to help correctly format your answers with subscripts and
superscripts.*

Click to subscript text and click to superscript text.
1. For example, to write the chemical formula for water, type a capital “H” in the input box.
2. Click and then type “2.”
3. Click again to set the text format back to normal font. Note that you press the button
before AND after you enter the character to be formatted.
4. Type a capital “O.”
Check the Preview Area to see your entry before submitting it.
*If you are familiar with previous versions of OWL, you can still format your answers with
underscores (Shift-minus) for subscripts and carats (Shift-6) for superscripts.
Scientifi c Notation in OWL
The basics of formatting scientifi c notation in OWL appear in the Scientifi c Notation screen below
(accessible from the information menu bar on any question page):
For more info, go to www.cengage.com/owl and choose For Students >Getting Started.
For Technical Support for OWL, please visit www.cengage.com/owl.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
7755770088__ZZuummddaahhll__OOWWLL..iinndddd 22 11//1144//1100 1100::3399::4411 AAMM
75708_StudyCards_Student_01-02.qxd 1/14/10 10:40 AM Page 1
Study Card to Accompany Zumdahl’s Introductory Chemistry Series
Measurements and Calculations Gases
Table 2.2 The Commonly Used Prefixes in the STP: 0 °C, 1 atm
Metric System p.19 Volume of 1 mole of ideal gas at STP (cid:3)22.4 L
PV(cid:3)nRT(Ideal Gas Law)
Power of 10 for
R(cid:3)0.08206 L atm/K mol
Prefix Symbol Meaning Scientific Notation
Process at constant nand T: P V (cid:3)P V (Boyle’s law)
1 1 2 2
mega M 1,000,000.000000001 106 Process at constant nand P: V /T (cid:3)V /T (Charles’s law)
1 1 2 2
kilo k 1000 103 Process at constant Tand P: V1/n1(cid:3)V2/n2
deci d 0.1 10(cid:2)1 (Avogadro’s law)
centi c 0.01 10(cid:2)2
milli m 0.001 10(cid:2)3 Types of Crystalline Solids
micro m 0.000001 10(cid:2)6
nano n 0.000000001 10(cid:2)9 Crystalline solids p.459
Table 2.6 Some Examples of Commonly UsedUnits
p.
length A dime is 1 mm thick. 22
Ionic solids Molecular solids Atomic solids
A quarter is 2.5 cm in diameter.
The average height of an adult man is 1.8 m.
Components Components Components
mass A nickel has a mass of about 5 g. are ions. are molecules. are atoms.
A 120-lb woman has a mass of about 55 kg.
volume A 12-oz can of soda has a volume of about 360 mL. Figure 14.13 The classes of crystalline solids.
A half gallon of milk is equal to about 2 L of milk.
1 cm3(cid:3)1 mL Solutions
density of H O(l) (cid:3)1.0 g/mL
density (cid:3)m2ass/volume Mass percent(cid:3) mass of solute (cid:4)100% (p. 481)
Avogadro’s number (cid:3)6.022 (cid:4)1023 mass of solution
Energy M(cid:3)molarity(cid:3) moles of solute (cid:3) mol (p. 483)
liters of solution L
Heat Required (cid:3)Q(cid:3)specific heat capacity (cid:4)mass (cid:4)(cid:5)T Mass of solute (cid:3) (molar mass of solute) (cid:4)
Specific heat capacity of H2O(l) (cid:3)4.184 J/g °C (L of solution) (Molarity)
Kinetic energy (cid:3)mv2/2
number of equivalents
Exothermic reactions produce heat Normality(cid:3)N(cid:3)
1 liter of solution
Endothermic reactions absorb heat
equivalents equiv
Kinds of Chemical Reactions (cid:3) (cid:3) (p. 499)
liter L
Chemical p.
reactions 191 Acids and Bases
Common Strong Acids: HCl, HNO , H SO , HClO , HI
3 2 4 4
Common Weak Acids: HSO (cid:2), CH COOH (often written
4 3
HC H O ), HF
Precipitation Oxidation–reduction Acid–base 2 3 2
reactions reactions reactions Common Strong Bases: NaOH, KOH
Common Weak Bases: NH
3
K (cid:3)10(cid:2)14(cid:3)[H(cid:6)][OH(cid:2)] (ion-product constant for water)
w
(p. 523)
Decomposition
Synthesis reactions
Combustion (Reactants are reactions pH (cid:3)(cid:2)log[H(cid:6)] (p. 526)
reactions (Products are
elements.)
elements.)
pOH (cid:3)(cid:2)log[OH(cid:2)] (p. 527)
Figure 7.12 Summary of classes of reactions.
pH (cid:6)pOH (cid:3)14.00 (p. 529)
Atomic Structure
Mass number (A) Equilibrium Constants
c (number of protons and neutrons)
2131NadElement symbol aA(cid:6)bB 43 cC(cid:6)dD, K(cid:3)[C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b (p. 553)
c Atomic number (Z)
(number of protons) A2B3 (s) 43 2A3(cid:6)(aq)(cid:6)3B2(cid:2)(aq),Ksp(cid:3)[A3(cid:6)]2[B2(cid:2)]3
A(cid:2)Z(cid:3)#n0 #p(cid:6)(cid:2)#e(cid:2)(cid:3)charge [X] (cid:3)Molarity of X
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
75708_StudyCards_Student_01-02.qxd 1/14/10 10:41 AM Page 2
Study Card to Accompany Zumdahl’s Introductory Chemistry Series
Chemical Bonding
Table 12.4 Arrangements of Electron Pairs and the Resulting Molecular Structures for Two,Three,and Four Electron Pairs p.
Number of Electron Pair Ball-and-Stick Molecular Partial Lewis Ball-and-Stick388
Electron Pairs Bonds Arrangement Model Structure Structure Model
2 2 Linear 180˚ Linear AOBOA Cl Be Cl
3 3 Trigonal planar Trigonal planar A F
(triangular) (triangular)
120˚
B
B F F
A A
4 4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral A H
109.5˚
C
A B A H H
H
A
4 3 Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramid A B A N H
109.5˚ H
H
A
4 2 Tetrahedral Bent or V-shaped A B A O
109.5˚ H H
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Common Lewis Dot Fragments
Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL)
Reduction is gain of electrons (RIG)
O
H N (cid:2)1
(cid:3)1
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States p.
586
1. The oxidation state of an atom in an uncombined element is 0.
N 2. The oxidation state of a monatomic ion is the same as its
C O
charge.
3. Oxygen is assigned an oxidation state of (cid:2)2 in most of its
covalent compounds.Important exception:peroxides
(compounds containing the O2(cid:2)group),in which each oxygen
2
is assigned an oxidation state of (cid:2)1.
4. In its covalent compounds with nonmetals,hydrogen is
C N O assigned an oxidation state of (cid:6)1.
5. In binary compounds,the element with the greater
electronegativity is assigned a negative oxidation state equal
to its charge as an anion in its ionic compounds.
6. For an electrically neutral compound,the sum of the oxidation
states must be zero.
C N F 7. For an ionic species,the sum of the oxidation states must
equal the overall charge.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
49408_Insert4_2-3.qxd 1/6/10 1:01 PM Page Ins42
Periodic Table of Elements
Noble
gases
Alkaline
1 earth metals Halogens18
1A 8A
1 2
2 13 14 15 16 17
H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Transition metals
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
s 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
al
et K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
m
ali 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
k
Al Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 118
Fr Ra Ac† Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuo
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanides
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
†Actinides 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
49408_Insert4_2-3.qxd 1/6/10 1:01 PM Page Ins43
c 7 6 69 927 8 4 182
tomiMass 40.945]31]2622]86.202.972]85.401.161]50.444.963]78.928.007.922.987.632.080.998]27.658.904.432.068.918.747.883.938.050.931.373.088.965.391.2
A 11222112 121 2 1 1[112211 12 11
[[ [ [ [ [
micber
om 9118655174421644718633251090242340900
tu 5698874134062031413174568965279257334
AN 1 1 1
mbol PrPmPaRaRnReRhRgRbRuRfSmScSgSeSiAgNaSrSTaTcTeTbTlThTmSnTiWUVXeYbYZnZr
y
S
m m
ses* Element PraseodymiuPromethiumProtactiniumRadiumRadonRheniumRhodiumRoentgeniumRubidiumRutheniumRutherfordiuSamariumScandiumSeaborgiumSeleniumSiliconSilverSodiumStrontiumSulfurTantalumTechnetiumTelluriumTerbiumThalliumThoriumThuliumTinTitaniumTungstenUraniumVanadiumXenonYtterbiumYttriumZincZirconium est-lived isotope.
s ng
o
a 9 he l
M tomicMass 97.078.565]4.00364.91.00814.826.992.255.8583.8038.960]07.26.94175.024.3154.9468]58]00.695.9444.220.1837]58.6992.9114.0159]90.216.0006.430.9795.144]09]39.10 mass of t
A 11[2 1 111 1[22 1 [2[22 1 [2 [21 1 1[2[2 he
c t
i micber notes
m om 9282719376673231259102003817268658449 de
AtNu 7710 6 457235108 71210108461924 107 417981 es
es
h
o nt
At Symbol AuHfHsHeHoHInIIrFeKrLaLrPbLiLuMgMnMtMdHgMoNdNeNpNiNbNNoOsOPdPPtPuPoK n in pare
m m ve
e of Element GoldHafniumHassiumHeliumHolmiumHydrogenIndiumIodineIridiumIronKryptonLanthanumLawrenciumLeadLithiumLutetiumMagnesiumManganeseeitneriumMMendeleviuMercuryMolybdenuNeodymiumNeonNeptuniumNickelNiobiumNitrogenNobeliumOsmiumOxygenPalladiumPhosphorusPlatinumPlutoniumPoloniumPotassium §e.A value gi
bl
bl possi
e
Ta AtomicMass 227]§ 26.98243]121.839.9574.92210]137.3247]9.012209.0264]10.8179.90112.440.08251]12.01140.1132.9035.4552.0058.9363.55247]271]262]162.5252]167.3152.0257]19.00223]157.369.7272.59 gures wher
[ [ [ [ [ [ [[[ [ [ [ fi
nt
a
tomicumber 8913955118338556974830753548209865855172427299610056699686300987643132 signific
AN 1 11 1 ur
o
f
o
mbol AcAlAmSbArAsAtBaBkBeBiBhBBrCdCaCfCCeCsClCrCoCuCmDsDbDyEsErEuFmFFrGdGaGe are t
Sy ere
m h
Element ActiniumAluminumAmericiumAntimonyArgonArsenicAstatineBariumBerkeliumBerylliumBismuthBohriumBoronBromineCadmiumCalciumCaliforniumCarbonCeriumCesiumChlorineChromiumCobaltCopperCuriumDarmstadtiuDubniumDysprosiumEinsteiniumErbiumEuropiumFermiumFluorineFranciumGadoliniumGalliumGermanium *The values given
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
49408_Insert5_2-3.qxd 1/6/10 1:05 PM Page Ins52
Table 5.1 Common Simple Cations and Anions
Cation Name Anion Name*
H(cid:2) hydrogen H(cid:3) hydride
Li(cid:2) lithium F(cid:3) fluoride
Na(cid:2) sodium Cl(cid:3) chloride
K(cid:2) potassium Br(cid:3) bromide
Cs(cid:2) cesium I(cid:3) iodide
Be2(cid:2) beryllium O2(cid:3) oxide
Mg2(cid:2) magnesium S2(cid:3) sulfide
Ca2(cid:2) calcium
Ba2(cid:2) barium
Al3(cid:2) aluminum
Ag(cid:2) silver
Zn2(cid:2) zinc
*The root is given in color.
Table 5.2 Common Type II Cations
Ion Systematic Name Older Name
Fe3(cid:2) iron(III) ferric
Fe2(cid:2) iron(II) ferrous
Cu2(cid:2) copper(II) cupric
Cu(cid:2) copper(I) cuprous
Co3(cid:2) cobalt(III) cobaltic
Co2(cid:2) cobalt(II) cobaltous
Sn4(cid:2) tin(IV) stannic
Sn2(cid:2) tin(II) stannous
Pb4(cid:2) lead(IV) plumbic
Pb2(cid:2) lead(II) plumbous
Hg2(cid:2) mercury(II) mercuric
Hg 2(cid:2)* mercury(I) mercurous
2
*Mercury(I) ions always occur bound together in pairs to form
Hg2(cid:2).
2
Table 5.4 Names of Common Polyatomic Ions
Ion Name Ion Name
NH (cid:2) ammonium CO 2(cid:3) carbonate
4 3
NO (cid:3) nitrite HCO (cid:3) hydrogen carbonate
2 3
NO (cid:3) nitrate (bicarbonate is a widely
3
used common name)
SO 2(cid:3) sulfite
3 ClO(cid:3) hypochlorite
SO 2(cid:3) sulfate
4 ClO (cid:3) chlorite
HSO (cid:3) hydrogen sulfate 2
4 ClO (cid:3) chlorate
(bisulfate is a widely 3
used common name) ClO (cid:3) perchlorate
4
OH(cid:3) hydroxide C H O (cid:3) acetate
2 3 2
CN(cid:3) cyanide MnO (cid:3) permanganate
4
PO 3(cid:3) phosphate Cr O 2(cid:3) dichromate
4 2 7
HPO 2(cid:3) hydrogen phosphate CrO 2(cid:3) chromate
4 4
H PO (cid:3) dihydrogen phosphate O 2(cid:3) peroxide
2 4 2
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
49408_Insert5_2-3.qxd 1/6/10 1:05 PM Page Ins53
Table 7.1 General Rules for Solubility of Ionic Compounds (Salts) in Water at 25 °C
1. Most nitrate (NO (cid:3)) salts are soluble.
3
2. Most salts of Na(cid:2), K(cid:2), and NH (cid:2) are soluble.
4
3. Most chloride salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are AgCl, PbCl , and Hg Cl .
2 2 2
4. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are BaSO , PbSO , and CaSO .
4 4 4
5. Most hydroxide compounds are only slightly soluble.* The important exceptions are NaOH and KOH. Ba(OH)
2
and Ca(OH) are only moderately soluble.
2
6. Most sulfide (S2(cid:3)), carbonate (CO 2(cid:3)), and phosphate (PO 3(cid:3)) salts are only slightly soluble.*
3 4
*The terms insolubleand slightly solublereally mean the same thing: such a tiny amount dissolves that it is not possible to detect it with the naked eye.
SI Units and Conversion Factors*
Length SI Unit:Meter (m) Volume SI Unit:Cubic Meter (m3)
1 meter (cid:4) 1.0936 yards 1 liter (cid:4) 10(cid:3)3 m3
1 centimeter (cid:4) 0.39370 inch (cid:4) 1dm3
(cid:4) 1.0567 quarts
1 inch (cid:4) 2.54 centimeters
1 gallon (cid:4) 4 quarts
(exactly)
(cid:4) 8 pints
1 kilometer (cid:4) 0.62137 mile (cid:4) 3.7854 liters
1 mile (cid:4) 5280. feet 1 quart (cid:4) 32 fluid ounces
(cid:4) 1.6093 kilometers (cid:4) 0.94635 liter
Pressure SI Unit:Pascal (Pa)
1 atmosphere (cid:4) 101.325 kilopascals
Mass SI Unit:Kilogram (kg) (cid:4) 760. torr (mm Hg)
1 kilogram (cid:4) 1000 grams (cid:4) 14.70 pounds per square
(cid:4) 2.2046 pounds inch
1 pound (cid:4) 453.59 grams
(cid:4) 0.45359 kilogram
(cid:4) 16 ounces Energy SI Unit:Joule (J)
1 joule (cid:4) 0.23901 calorie
1 atomic
mass unit (cid:4) 1.66057(cid:5)10(cid:3)27kilograms 1 calorie (cid:4) 4.184 joules
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.