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Introduction to VISUAL COMPUTING Core Concepts in Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing Introduction to VISUAL COMPUTING Core Concepts in Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing Aditi Majumder University of California, Irvine, USA M. Gopi University of California, Irvine, USA CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20180112 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4491-5 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www. copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface xi I Fundamentals 1 1 Data 3 1.1 Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2 Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.1 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2.2 Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3 Representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.1 Geometric Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2 Techniques 21 2.1 Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.1.1 Linear Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.1.2 Bilinear Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.2 Geometric Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 II Image Based Visual Computing 33 3 Convolution 35 v vi Contents 3.1 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.1.1 Response of a Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.1.2 Properties of Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2 Linear Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2.1 All, Low, Band and High Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . 43 3.2.2 Designing New Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.2.3 2D Filter Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.2.4 Correlation and Pattern Matching . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.3 Implementation Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4 Spectral Analysis 67 4.1 Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.1.1 Why Sine and Cosine Waves? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.2 Polar Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.2.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.2.2 Example Analysis of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.3 Periodicity of Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4 Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.5 Extension for 2D Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.5.1 Effect of Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.5.2 Notch Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.5.3 Example of Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.6 Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5 Feature Detection 99 5.1 Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.1.1 Edgel Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.1.2 Multi-Resolution Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1.3 Aggregating Edgels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.2 Feature Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.3 Other Non-Linear Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Contents vii III Geometric Visual Computing 125 6 Geometric Transformations 127 6.1 Homogeneous Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 6.2 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.3 Euclidean and Affine Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.3.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.3.2 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.3.3 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 6.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.3.5 Some Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.4 Concatenation of Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.4.1 Scaling About the Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.4.2 Rotation About an Arbitrary Axis . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.5 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.5.1 Change of Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.6 Properties of Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.6.1 Global vs Local Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.7 Projective Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.8 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.9 Non-Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 7 The Pinhole Camera 157 7.1 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 7.1.1 Camera Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 7.1.2 3D Depth Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.1.3 Homography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7.2 Considerations in the Practical Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 7.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 8 Epipolar Geometry 177 8.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 8.2 Correspondences in Multi-View Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . 179 8.3 Fundamental Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 8.3.1 Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.3.2 Estimating Fundamental Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 viii Contents 8.3.3 Camera Setup Akin to Two Frontal Eyes . . . . . . . 185 8.4 Essential Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.5 Rectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.6 Applying Epipolar Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.6.1 Depth from Disparity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8.6.2 Depth from Optical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 IV Radiometric Visual Computing 199 9 Light 201 9.1 Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 9.1.1 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function . . . . 203 9.1.2 Light Transport Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 9.2 Photometry and Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 9.2.1 CIE XYZ Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 9.2.2 Perceptual Organization of CIE XYZ Space . . . . . . 211 9.2.3 Perceptually Uniform Color Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 10 Color Reproduction 223 10.1 Modeling Additive Color Mixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 10.1.1 Color Gamut of a Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 10.1.2 Tone Mapping Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 10.1.3 Intensity Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 10.1.4 Example Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 10.2 Color Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 10.2.1 Gamut Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 10.2.2 Gamut Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 10.3 Modeling Subtractive Color Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 10.4 Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 10.4.1 High Dynamic Range Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 10.4.2 Multi-Spectral Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 10.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Contents ix Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 11 Photometric Processing 251 11.1 Histogram Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 11.1.1 Handling Color Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 11.2 Image Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 11.2.1 Image Blending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 11.2.2 Image Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 11.3 Photometric Stereo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 11.3.1 Handling Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 11.3.2 Computing Illumination Directions . . . . . . . . . . . 270 11.3.3 Handling Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 11.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 V Visual Content Synthesis 277 12 The Diverse Domain 279 12.1 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 12.2 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 12.3 Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 12.4 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 12.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 13 Interactive Graphics Pipeline 291 13.1 Geometric Transformation of Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 13.1.1 Model Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 13.1.2 View Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 13.1.3 Perspective Projection Transformation . . . . . . . . . 297 13.1.4 Occlusion Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 13.1.5 Window Coordinate Transformation . . . . . . . . . . 304 13.1.6 The Final Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 13.2 Clipping and Vertex Interpolation of Attributes . . . . . . . . 305 13.3 Rasterization and Pixel Interpolation of Attributes . . . . . . 311 13.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

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