Introduction to the Study of Animal Populations

293 Pages·1970·13.01 MB·English

by  H. G. Andrewartha (auth.)

Introduction to the
Study of Animal Populations
Introduction to the
Study of Animal Populations
H.G.ANDREWARTHA
Department of Zoology,
The University of Adelaide,
Adelaide, South Australia
SECOND EDITION
CHAP MAN AND HALL LTD
I I NEW FETTER LANE' LONDON EC4P 4EE
First published 1961 by
Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Reprinted 1966,1968
Second edition 1970
Reprinted 1971
Published by Chapman & Hall Ltd.
11 New Fetter Lane, EC4P 4EE
Reproduced and printed in Great Britain by
Redwood Press Limited, London & Trowbridge
ISBN-13: 978-0-412-11020-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-3324-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3324-1
© 1961,1970, H. G. Andrewartha
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1961
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be produced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
7.vithout the prior written permission of the publisher.
Contents
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION page xi
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xii
PART I: THEORY
The history and scope of ecology
I.
1.0 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 POPULATION ECOLOGY: THE STUDY OF THE
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF ANIMALS 6
1.2 THE BROAD BASES FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY 10
I.3 HOW TO WRITE ABOUT ECOLOGY 14
1.4 FURTHER READING 16
2. Environment
2.0 INTRODUCTION 17
2.1 THE IDEA THAT ENVIRONMENT IS DIVISIBLE INTO
FIVE COMPONENTS 19
2.2 FURTHER READING 20
3. Components of environment,. resources
3.0 INTRODUCTION 22
3.1 RELATIVE SHORTAGES 25
3.11 Extrinsic relative shortages 25
3.12 Intrinsic relative shortages 30
3.121 Outbreaks of pests 31
3.2 ABSOLUTE SHORTAGES 32
3.21 Territorial behaviour in relation to re.iources 36
v
Vi CONTENTS
3.211 Territorial behaviour in insects 37
3.212 Territorial behaviour in vertebrates 40
3.3 THE DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF
RESOURCES
4. Components of environment; mates
4.0 INTRODUCTION 54
4.1 SHORTAGE OF MATES 54
4.2 THE PREVALENCE OF SPARSENESS 57
4.3 ADAPTATIONS THAT INCREASE THE CHANCE OF
FINDING A MATE WHEN NUMBERS ARE FEW 58
5. Components of environment; predators and
pathogens: aggressors
5.0 INTRODUCTION 60
5.1 PREDATORS 61
5.11 The 'biological control' of insect pests 61
5.12 Predators of vertebrates 67
5.2 PATHOGENS 69
5.21 The biological control of rabbits by myxomatosis 69
5.22 The biological control of insect pests 72
5.23 The activity of pathogens 75
5·3 AGGRESSORS 75
6. Components of environment; weather
6.0 INTRODUCTION 85
6.1 TEMPERATURE 86
6. I I The influence of temperature on speed ofd evelopment 86
6. II I The speed of development at constant .tempera-
tures 87
6.12 The lethal influence of temperature 89
6.13 The limits of the tolerable zone 95
6.131 The influence of acclimatization on the limits of
the tolerable zone 96
6.14 Behaviour in a gradient of temperature 98
6.15 Adaptations to temperature 99
6.2 MOISTURE 101
6.z1 Behaviour in relation to moisture 104
CONTENTS' vii
6.22 Physiological mechanisms for conserving water IIO
6.221 'Water-balance' in aquatic animals IIO
6.222 Conservation of water in terrestrial insects, ticks
and snails 112
6.223 Conservation of water in terrestrial mammals 118
6.3 LIGHT 124
6.31 The influence of light in synchronizing life-cycles
with each other 124
6.32 The influence of light in synchronizing the life-cycle
with the season of the year 125
7. Components of environment; malentities
7.0 INTRODUCTION 129
7.1 BROWNING'S DEFINITION OF HAZARDS 130
7.2 MALENTITIES 130
8. Components of environment; more about the
ecological web
8.0 INTRODUCTION 133
8.1 SOME ADVANTAGES IN BEING ONE OF MANY 134
8.2 INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOLOGICAL WEB MAY BE
IMPORTANT 136
8.3 INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOLOGICAL WEB MAY
RAMIFY 140
8.4 ECOLOGICAL BARRIERS AS PART OF THE ECO-
LOGICAL WEB 143
9· Theory; the numbers of animals tn natural
populations
9·0 INTRODUCTION 144
9.01 The meanings of 'common' and 'rare' 144
9.1 THE CONDITIONS OF 'COMMONNESS' AND 'RARE-
NESS' IN LOCAL POPULATIONS 145
9.1I The conditions of commonness in local populations 145
9.12 The conditions of rareness in local populations 146
9· I 3 The way in u'hich weather keeps a local population
rare relative to food and other resources 147
viIi' CONTENTS
9.2 THE CONDITIONS OF 'COMMONNESS' OR 'RARE-
NESS' IN NATURAL POPULATIONS 148
9.21 General conclusions 155
9.22 Negative feed-back to density 156
9.221 The conditions of negative feed-back in natural
populations 158
PART II: PRACTICAL COURSE
Methods for estimating density, patterns of dis
10.
tribution and dispersal in populations of animals
10.0 INTRODUCTION 165
10.1 THE MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE DENSITY 165
10.2 THE MEASUREMENT OF ABSOLUTE DENSITY 170
10.21 Counting the whole population 170
10.22 The use of quadrats 170
10.23 The method of capture, marking, release and re-
capture 172
10.3 THE MEASUREMENT OF 'AGGREGATION' IN
NATURAL POPULATIONS 178
10.31 A test for randomness: the Poisson distribution 179
10.4 DISPERSAL 181
IO.41 Dispersal by drifting 181
IO.4II Dispersal of the bean aphis, Aphis fabae 181
10.412 Dispersal of wingless insects, mites and spiders 181
10.413 The dispersal of locusts 182
10.414 The dispersal of strong-flying insects by winds
near the ground 183
10.415 The dispersal of marine species that drift with
currents 184
10.42 Dispersal by swimming, walking or flying 184
10.421 The measurement of dispersal 185
10.43 Dispersal by clinging 189
10·44 The special importance of dispersal zn insect
predators 189
10.45 The general importance of dispersal 190
10.5 CLASS EXPERIMENTS ON THE ESTIMATION OF
DENSITY, DISTRIBUTION AND DISPERSAL
10.51 DenSity
CONTENTS IX
10.51 I To compare the relative densities of two popu-
lations of Paramoecium 191
10.512 To estimate the number of Tribolium in a
box of flour 194
10.513 To estimate the number of Triboliu11l using
stratified sampling 196
10.514 To estimate the number of Helix by capture,
marking, release and recapture 197
10.515 To estimate the trends in the density of a
population of Tl'lbolium using a trellis diagram 198
10.52 Patterns of dzstribution 204
10.521 To compare the distribution of Saissetia with
the Poisson distribution 204
10.522 To compare the pattern of distribution of two
colonies of Paramoecium 206
10.53 The measurement of dispersal 2II
10.531 To measure the rate of dispersal of Paramoecium 2II
10.532 To measure the rate of dispersal of Helix 217
I I. Physiological responses to temperature
11.1 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON SPEED OF
DEVELOPMENT 220
I I.I I To compare the rate of egg-laying of flour beetles
M'er a range of temperature 220
I I .12 To measure the influence of temperature on the rate
of egg-production by Thrips imaginis 225
11.2 THE LETHAL INFLUENCE OF EXTREME TEMPER-
ATURE 229
11.21 To estimate the duration of exposure to 5°C re-
quired to kzll Calandra granaria 229
11.22 To estimate the duration of exposure to 5°C re
quired to kill the flour beetles Tribolium castaneum
and T. confusum 234
Behaviour in relation to moisture and food
12.
12.1 MOISTURE 243
12.11 To measure the response of flour beetles to a
gradient of moisture 243
12.2 FOOD 249
12.21 To measure the response of egg-laying females of
Pieris to a variety of common garden plants 249
x . CONTENTS
12.22 To measure the response of egg-laying females of
Pieris to different species of Brassicae 252
12.23 To measure the response of Helicella virgata to
food and shelter 255
APPENDIX 261
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND AUTHOR INDEX 263
INDEX 277
Preface to the Second Edition
In revising this book I have tried to bring the theory of environment
up to date in the light of certain important criticisms that have appeared
since 1961, especially in papers by T. O. Browning and D. A. Maelzer,
and in the light of experience gained while using the book as a text for an
undergraduate course in population ecology in the University of
Adelaide. As a consequence the order in which the argument is pre
sented has been altered. Some new material has been introduced to
expand the discussion of certain topics, especially resources, pathogens,
aggressors and territorial behaviour. But the general approach to the
subject and the general theory remains very much the same as in the
first edition.
I am grateful to Professor F. Fenner and Dr F. N. Ratcliffe and to
Cambridge University Press for permission to reproduce Fig. 5.04;
to Professor D. O. Chitty and the Ecological Society of Australia for
permission to reproduce Fig. 5.05 (with minor modifications); Fig. 3.03
has been modified from a figure in a paper by H. G. Andrewartha and
T. O. Browning first published in the Journal of Experimental Biology.
Adelaide, 1970 H. G. A.
xi