Introduction to the Anatomy and Physiology of Children: A guide for students of nursing, child care and health, 2nd edition

270 Pages·2008·1.49 MB·English

Introduction to the Anatomy
and Physiology of Children
Fully updated, this new edition provides an introduction to normal, healthy
physical development for all professionals who specialise in working with
children. The author, an experienced nurse teacher, guides the reader through
the key changes in body systems and functions from embryo to birth
through childhood and adolescence.
Chapter 1 sets the scene for physical needs in child development, such
as the need to be warm and safe. Chapters 2 to 9 cover the body systems:
• skeletal
• nervous
• cardiovascular
• respiratory
• renal
• digestive
• reproductive
• immune.
The embryology and physiological function at birth is explored in each
chapter before the text moves on through the many changes over the next
decade to puberty and the arrival at adult functioning. A new final chapter
provides a holistic account of children’s development, body and mind. Each
chapter is illustrated with line drawings and tables, and ends with scenarios
which illustrate how knowledge supports good practice in a real-life situation,
and a quiz to consolidate learning.
Concise and clearly written, this introductory text will be essential reading
for all those working with children and families in the health and social
care sector who must be aware of Every Child Matters and new national
service framework government directives to ensure children enjoy a safe
and healthy childhood.
Janet MacGregor was the Faculty of Health and Social Care Director of
Knowledge Transfer and Foundation Degrees at Canterbury Christ Church
University. She is now Principal of the College of Nursing at Fatima
Memorial System, Lahore, Pakistan.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my students and the children we care for.
I am particularly grateful to six ‘little people’, whom I have studied closely
in compiling this book:
Morgan
George
Annabel
Hamish
Louise
Cameron
May these reflections on your individual development help those who
are interested in other children’s physical development to understand all
children’s needs and thus provide the optimum environment for them to
achieve their unique genetic potential.
Thank you.
R
O
Introduction to the
Anatomy and
Physiology of
U
Children
A guide for students of T
nursing, child care
and health
L
Second edition
E
Janet MacGregor
D
G
E
First published 2000 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
This edition published 2008
from the British Library
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Data
Simultaneously published in the USA and MacGregor, Janet, 1943–
Canada Introduction to the anatomy and physiology
by Routledge of children: a guide for students of nursing,
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 child care, and health/
Janet MacGregor. – 2nd ed.
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis
p.cm.
Group, an informa business
Includes bibliographical references and
This edition published in the Taylor & index
Francis e-Library, 2008. 1. Children–Physiology. 2. Human
anatomy. 3. Child development.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor I. Title.
& Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of RJ125.M23 2008
eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” 612′.0083–dc22 2007038191
© 2000, 2008 Janet MacGregor ISBN 0-203-92931-4 Master e-book ISBN
All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, ISBN10: 0–415–44623–6 (hbk)
or other means, now known or hereafter ISBN10: 0–415–44624–4 (pbk)
invented, including photocopying and ISBN10: 0–203–92931–4 (ebk)
recording, or in any information storage
or retrieval system, without permission in ISBN13: 978–0–415–44623–5 (hbk)
writing from the publishers. ISBN13: 978–0–415–44624–2 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–92931–5 (ebk)
C
o
Contents
n
t
e
List of illustrations xi
Preface xiii
n
1 Child physical needs 1
Child development theories 2
The nature–nurture debate 3
Genetic inheritance 4 t
A healthy environment 7
The need for protective care 8
The need for food 12 s
The need for temperature control 16
The need for activity, rest and sleep 17
Physiology knowledge in practice 18
Extend your knowledge 20
Quiz 21
Further reading 22
2 The skeletal system 23
Embryology 24
The changing skeleton 25
Growth in height 27
Genetic inheritance 27
Hormones of growth 28
Exercise 33
Nature–nurture 34
Strength 35
CONTENTS
Physical activity play 36
Body shape changes 37
Physiology knowledge in practice 39
Extend your knowledge 42
Quiz 42
3 The nervous system 45
Brain growth embryology 46
Temperature control 49
Nerve growth 52
The blood/brain barrier 54
Birth and the primitive reflexes 55
Sensory nerve function 57
Neuromuscular control 62
Sleep 64
Physiology knowledge in practice 67
Extend your knowledge 68
Quiz 69
Further reading 70
4 The cardiovascular system 71
Heart embryology 72
Foetal heart circulation 73
Blood cell production in the foetus and neonate 75
Children’s blood 76
Common blood tests 77
Circulation changes in the heart at birth 78
Changes in the cardiovascular system in childhood 80
Exercise and cardiovascular function 82
Physiology knowledge in practice 84
Extend your knowledge 87
Quiz 87
5 The respiratory system 89
Embryology 91
Surfactant 92
The lungs at birth 93
Infant breathing – the first few weeks 94
The small child’s breathing 96
Apnoea 97
vi
CONTENTS
Respiratory resuscitation 97 111
Changes at puberty 98 2
Measuring respiratory rates 100 3
Respiration during exercise 100 4
Breathing changes during sleep 103
5
Development of the ear 103
611
Physiology knowledge in practice 106
7
Extend your knowledge 107
8
Quiz 107
9
Further reading 108
101
1
6 The renal system 109 2
3
Water balance 111
4
Embryo urinary system development 112
51
The kidney and urine production at birth 114
622
Fluid requirements in the first week 116
7
Developing continence 116
Bed wetting – nocturnal enuresis 118 8
Gaining continence 119 9
Dehydration and rehydration 120 201
Urine 122 1
Physiology knowledge in practice 125 2
Extend your knowledge 126 3
Quiz 127 4
5
6
7 The digestive system 129
7
The developing gut 130 8
The mouth 132 9
Teeth 134
301
Reflexes of the mouth and throat 134
1
The stomach 135
2
The small intestine – duodenum and ileum 137
3
Weaning 137
4
Failure to thrive 138
5
Calorie needs 139
6
The liver and blood glucose balance 141
7
Physiological jaundice 142
Bowels 143 8
Stools 145 9
Physiology knowledge in practice 147 401
vii
CONTENTS
Extend your knowledge 149
Quiz 149
8 The reproductive system 151
Male or female – the embryology 152
Changes after birth 156
Body composition of lean and fat tissues –
sex differences 157
Changes in the reproductive system at puberty 158
Genetics 161
The ovary and ovary cycle 163
Menstrual cycle 165
Sexually transmitted diseases 167
Physiology knowledge in practice 169
Extend your knowledge 170
Quiz 171
9 The immune system 173
Protection from micro-organisms – the three lines of
defence 174
Lymphocyte development in the embryo 179
Immunoglobulin (Ig) production in the foetus and
newborn 180
The rhesus factor 181
Embryology of the thymus gland and T lymphocyte
development 181
Lymph vessel development 183
Stress 184
The damaging chronic stress hormones 186
Resilience 187
The physiology of immunisation 188
Points of interest when vaccinating children 189
Physiology knowledge in practice 190
Extend your knowledge 192
Quiz 192
10 Body and mind 195
The limbic area of the brain 196
The hypothalamus 197
The developing mind 200
viii
CONTENTS
Physiology knowledge in practice 208 111
Extend your knowledge 210 2
Quiz 210 3
Further reading 212
4
5
611
Appendix 213
7
Glossary 217
Answers to quizzes 221 8
References 238 9
Index 247 101
1
2
3
4
51
622
7
8
9
201
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
301
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
401
ix