Introduction to Systems Ecology

311 Pages·2012·4.125 MB·English

by  Jorgensen, Sven Erik

K12561_cover.fhmx 3/8/12 11:58 AM Page 1
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K
ISBN: 978-1-4398-5501-0
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Introduction to
SYSTEMS
ECOLOGY
Applied Ecology
and Environmental Management
A SERIES
Series Editor
Sven E. Jørgensen
Copenhagen University, Denmark
Introduction to Systems Ecology
Sven E. Jørgensen
Handbook of Ecological Indicators for Assessment of
Ecosystem Health, Second Edition
Sven E. Jørgensen, Fu-Liu Xu, and Robert Costanza
Surface Modeling: High Accuracy and High Speed Methods
Tian-Xiang Yue
Handbook of Ecological Models Used in Ecosystem and
Environmental Management
Sven E. Jørgensen
ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION
Introduction to
SYSTEMS
ECOLOGY
Sven Erik Jørgensen
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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Version Date: 20111109
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Contents
Preface..................................................................................................................ix
About the Author..............................................................................................xi
. 1. Systems.Ecology:.An.Ecological.Discipline........................................1
1.1. What.Is.Systems.Ecology?.....................................................................................1
1.2. The.Holistic.Approach...........................................................................................4
1.3. Outline.of.the.Book................................................................................................4
Part 1 Sciences: Basic for Systems Ecology
. 2. Conservation.of.Energy.and.Matter....................................................11
2.1. The.Conservation.Laws........................................................................................11
2.2. Other.Thermodynamic.Functions.....................................................................13
2.3. Liebig’s.Law.of.Minimum....................................................................................18
2.4. Bioaccumulation.and.Biomagnification..........................................................22
2.5. Cycling.in.Ecosystems.and.in.the.Ecosphere..................................................28
2.6. Energy.Flows.in.Ecosystems..............................................................................30
2.7. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.2...................................................34
Exercises/Problems.........................................................................................................36
. 3. Ecosystems:.Growth.and.Development..............................................37
3.1. The.Maximum.Power.Principle.........................................................................37
3.2. Embodied.Energy/Emergy..................................................................................41
3.3. Ecosystem.as.a.Biochemical.Reactor................................................................45
3.4. Technological.and.Ecological.Interpretation.of.the.Thermodynamic.
Concept.Exergy....................................................................................................48
3.5. Eco-Exergy.and.Information.............................................................................54
3.6. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.3...................................................56
Exercises/Problems.........................................................................................................56
v
vi Contents
4 Irreversibility.and.Order:.The.Second.and.Third.Laws.
of.Thermodynamics.................................................................................59
4.1. Open.Systems........................................................................................................59
4.2. Physical.Openness...............................................................................................60
4.3. Ontic.Openness.....................................................................................................61
4.4. The.Second.Law.of.Thermodynamics.Interpreted.for.Ecosystems..............67
4.5. The.Third.Law.of.Thermodynamics.Applied.on.Open.Systems....................70
4.6. Dissipative.Structure.and.Eco-Exergy.............................................................73
4.7. How.to.Calculate.Exergy.of.Organic.Matter.and.Organisms......................73
4.8. Why.Have.Living.Systems.Such.a.High.Level.of.Exergy?..............................81
4.9. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.4...................................................82
Exercises/Problems.........................................................................................................82
. 5. .The.Biochemistry.of.Ecosystems........................................................85
5.1. A.General.Biochemistry.for.Living.Systems...................................................85
5.2. The.First.Steps.of.the.Evolution.toward.a.Biochemistry................................87
5.3. The.Prokaryote.Cells...........................................................................................89
5.4. The.Eukaryote.Cells............................................................................................90
5.5. The.Temperature.Range.Needed.for.Life.Processes.......................................92
5.6. Natural.Conditions.for.Life................................................................................93
5.7. Ecological.Stoichiometry....................................................................................96
5.8. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.5...................................................98
Exercises/Problems.........................................................................................................99
. 6. .The.Thermodynamic.Interpretation.of.Ecosystem.Growth.
and.Development....................................................................................101
6.1. Introduction........................................................................................................101
6.2. The.Ecosystem.Development.Described.by.a.Thermodynamic.
Interpretation.of.the.Three.Growth.Forms....................................................103
6.3. Seasonal.Changes..............................................................................................109
6.4. New.Ecosystems..................................................................................................110
6.5. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.6..................................................111
Exercises/Problems........................................................................................................113
. 7. The.Ecological.Law.of.Thermodynamics........................................115
7.1. Introduction:.Darwin’s.Theory........................................................................115
7.2. The.Ecological.Law.of.Thermodynamics.(ELT).............................................118
7.3. Some.Basic.Ecological.Observations.(Rules).That.Can.Be.Explained.
by.ELT...................................................................................................................119
7.4. Structurally.Dynamic.Models.(SDMs)...........................................................123
7.4.1. Development.of.SDM.for.Darwin’s.Finches....................................127
7.4.2. An.Ecotoxicological.SDM.Example:.
Copper.Changing.the.Size.of.Zooplankton.....................................129
7.5. The.Compliance.between.ELT.and.Evolutionary.Theories.........................132
7.6. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.7..................................................141
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................142
Contents vii
Part 2 Properties of Ecosystems
. 8. .Ecosystems.Are.Open.Systems..........................................................145
8.1. Why.Must.Ecosystems.Be.Open?.....................................................................145
8.2. The.Allometric.Principles.and.Quantification.of.Openness......................146
8.3. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.8.................................................154
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................154
. 9. .Ecosystems.Have.a.Hierarchical.Organization.............................155
9.1. The.Hierarchical.Organization.........................................................................155
9.2. Interactions.between.the.Hierarchical.Levels...............................................157
9.3. The.Variations.and.the.Hierarchical.Organization......................................160
9.4. The.Frequency.of.Disturbances........................................................................162
9.5. Ontic.Openness.and.the.Hierarchy.Theory....................................................165
9.6. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.9.................................................166
Exercises/Problems........................................................................................................167
.10. Ecosystems.Have.a.High.Diversity....................................................169
10.1. Introduction........................................................................................................169
10.2. The.Wide.Spectrum.of.Forcing.Functions.....................................................170
10.3. The.Molecular.Differentiation.in.Biochemistry............................................172
10.4. The.Genetic.Differentiation..............................................................................173
10.5. The.Diversity.of.Cells.........................................................................................174
10.6. The.Diversity.of.Organs.....................................................................................175
10.7. Diversity.among.Individuals............................................................................175
10.8. Species.Diversity.................................................................................................176
10.9. Differentiation.of.Communities.and.Ecological.Networks.........................179
10.10.Diversity.of.Ecosystems.....................................................................................179
10.11.The.Advantages.of.a.High.Biodiversity..........................................................180
10.12.Diversity.and.Extreme.Environment.............................................................184
10.12.1.The.Deep.Sea..........................................................................................185
10.12.2.Carnivorous.Plants...............................................................................187
10.13.Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.10...............................................188
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................188
.11. Ecosystems.Have.a.High.Buffer.Capacity........................................191
11.1. Introduction:.Stability.Concepts......................................................................191
11.2. The.Intermediate.Disturbance.Hypothesis.(IDH).......................................195
11.3. Hysteresis.and.Buffer.Capacities.....................................................................195
11.4. Chaos,.Disturbances,.and.Buffer.Capacities.................................................202
11.5. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.11................................................211
Exercises/Problems........................................................................................................212
.12. The.Components.of.Ecosystems.Form.Ecological.Networks.....213
12.1. Introduction........................................................................................................213
12.2. Ecological.Networks.Increase.Utilization.Efficiency.of.Matter.
and.Energy...........................................................................................................216
viii Contents
12.3. Cardinal.Hypotheses.about.the.Properties.of.Networks.............................218
12.4. Network.Analyses..............................................................................................221
12.5. Network.Selection.by.Ecosystems...................................................................236
12.6. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.12...............................................238
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................238
.13. Ecosystems.Have.a.Very.High.Content.of.Information...............241
13.1. The.Information.Embodied.in.the.Genes......................................................241
13.2. The.Ascendency.................................................................................................242
13.3. Information.Embodied.in.the.Networks.and.Horizontal.Evolution.........248
13.4. Life.Is.Information............................................................................................255
13.5. Summary.of.the.Important.Points.in.Chapter.13........................................258
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................258
.14. Ecosystems.Have.Emerging.Holistic.System.Properties.............261
14.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................261
14.2. Additional.Properties.of.Ecosystems.............................................................265
14.3. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.14...............................................267
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................268
.15. Application.of.System.Ecology.in.Ecological.Subdisciplines.
and.Environmental.Management......................................................269
15.1. Integrated.Ecological.and.Environmental.Management.Should.Be.
Based.on.a.Profound.Knowledge.of.System.Ecology...................................269
15.2. The.Application.of.Systems.Ecology.to.Explain.Ecological.
Observations.and.Rules.....................................................................................274
15.3. Application.of.Systems.Ecology.to.Explain.the.Principles.Applied.
in.Ecological.Engineering................................................................................278
15.4. Application.of.Systems.Ecology.to.Assess.Ecosystem.Health....................280
15.5. Summary.of.Important.Points.in.Chapter.15...............................................284
Exercises/Problems.......................................................................................................285
References.........................................................................................................287
Appendix...........................................................................................................297