Introduction to Mineralogy: Crystallography and Petrology

490 Pages·1969·19.5 MB·German

by  Dr. Dr. h. c. Carl W. Correns (auth.)

Carl Wilhelm Correns
Introduction to mineralogy,
crystallography, and
petrology
Second Edition
CarIW'. Correns
Introduction to Mineralogy
Crystallography and Petrology
SecondEdition, in Cooperationwith
JoseJZemann (Part One) and
Sigmund Koritnig (Mineral Tables)
Translated byWilliamD.Johns
With 391 Figures and 1 Plate
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1969
Dr,Dr,h.c,CadW. Correns, Prof. em., University ofGöttingen
Dr.]osefZemann, Prof., University ofWien
Dr,SigmundKoritnig, Prof., University ofGöttingen
Dr,William D.johns, Prof., Washington Universiry, St,Louis
The use ofgeneral descriptive names, trade names, trade marks,etc,inthispublication,eveniftheFormerare
not especially identified, isnotto betaken asasign that such names, asunderstoodbythe TradeMarks and
MerchandiseMarksAce,mayaccordingly beusedfreelybyanyone
Allrights reserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybetranslated orreproducedinanyformwithoutwritten
permission from Springer-Verlag. LibraryofCongress
ISBN 978-3-662-27098-1 ISBN 978-3-662-28578-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-28578-7
©bySpringer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg1969
UrsprünglicherschienenbeiSpringer-VerlagBerlinHeide1bergNewYork1969.
CatalogCardNumber69-19294.
Title No. 1560
Pretace to the Second Edition
The first edition of this book has been out of printfor sevenyears. The ques
tion as to whether a new edition should be produced was answered affirmatively
on many counts. I think that the considerations whichled me to write this book
in 1949are still valid (see Preface to the First Edition). Moreover, a description
of those areas of interest which together comprise the field of Mineralogy seems
to be more necessary than ever, because of the rapid advances which have been
made.
Due to the rapid extension of our knowledge, I did not dare again to treat
the whole field by myself. Accordingly, Professor ZEMANN kindly agreed to
revise the first part of the book dealing with Crystallography. He made many
important corrections.
In PartH the basic question arose as to whether the physical-chemioal
approach to rockforming processes, becomingmore andmore important,required
inclusive treatment of the fundamentals of physical chemistryin the book. I see
certaindangers in trying to produceapetrologytextwhich is physical chemically
self-sufficient. Thus, I retain the same opinion which prevailed when I wrote the
previous edition; namely that the necessary basic knowledge should be acquired
in lectures and laboratory classes in physics, chemistry, and physical chemistry,
and with the help of standard literature dealing with these subjects. This back
groundis, therefore,presumedandfundamentals are onlyreferredto occasionally.
In considering which of the new data and areas of interest to include, I at
tempted to keep in mind the introductory nature of the text and to select that
which seemed of fundamental importance for a student in his scientific work.
Thus, I deletedold materialas wellas adding new, in bringingthesubjectmatter
up-to-date. Important additions were made particularly in sections dealing with
volatile constituents, metamorphic facies, and isotope geochemistry. These
changes resulted in no significantnet change in the size of the volume.
The appended tables have been rearranged, particularly in the case of sedi
mentaryandmetamorphic rocks. Here thereader maylocatedetaileddata which
couldnot be mentionedin the text. In particularthis gives the readerthe oppor
tunity to familiarize himself with the variability of natural rocks, in contrast
to the simplified diagrams presented for comprehensive survey. I am indebted
to ProfessorKORITNIG for compilingagain andrevising the mineral tables. Along
with the tabulated rock data, they are an important supplement to the text.
Professor WEDEPOHL kindly read the proof for PartH. Dr. SMYKATz-KLoss
compiled the indices. I am grateful to both of them for this valuable assistance.
My wife did most of the writing for me and assisted in reading proof.
Göttingen, July1967 CARL W. CORRENS
Preface to theFirst Edition
Towrite anintroductorytextcoveringthe entirefield ofmineralogy, including
crystallography, petrology, and ore deposits, may seem presumptuous to many
today. The fact thattheauthorhas taughtthissubjectregularlythrough lectures
and Iaboratories for 22years is not in itself sufficient reason in his view. The
motivation to do so arose out of the necessity to provide for students of this
science and sister sciences 80 single useful and comprehensive book. Previous
texts have been designed with subjects selected to conform to the courses taught
at German Universities. Itis questionable whether this limitationis still or ever
was fortunate. Boundaries between the natural sciences have developed histori
cally andshould be maintained, in my opinion, only 80Spracticalitydictates,such
80Sin teaching. Each science is so intimatelylinked with its sister science that
boundaries tend to disappear. It is known that interdisciplinary approaches
frequently promote particularly successful research. Thus, also in the field of
mineralogy, theinfluenceofthe allied scienceshas been ofgreatimportance.This
is particularly true of the influence of mathematics and physics on crystaIlo
graphy and of geology on petrology. The changing emphasis on the one or the
other branches of our science, however, has not always been beneficiaI. For
example, it has resulted in judgments such 80Sthe following, attributed to the
renowned mineralogist A. G.WERNER, relative to HAÜY, one of the founders of
crystallography.The far-sighted geologistL.VONBUCHsays in 80letterofMay 17,
1804 to D. G.L.KARSTEN: "No, I do not agree with WERNER'S judgment of
HAÜY. He says he is no mineralogist." This book, on the other hand, attempts
to prove that crystallography, especially in its recent developments, is an in
dispensible prerequisite to petrology, and conversely, the problems of petrology
offermanystimulito crystallography. Importantsupportingsciences,in addition
to the examples already given, are chemistry and physical chemistry. Biology
is an important allied science to sedimentary petrology. Similarly, mineralogy
plays 80role among allied sciences, supporting them 80SweIl.I do not deny that
itis not always easy for students of sistersciencesor beginners to enterthe field
of mineralogy. Practical teaching experience suggests several reasons why this is
so. Overstressing formal principles in crystallography, along with the great
numberoftechnicalterms, are probablythegreatestobstacles. A certainamount
of knowledge of crystal forms is, in my opinion, indispensible and should be
acquired like the formula-Ianguage of the chemists. I have tried to keep within
bounds in this respect. The number of really necessary mineral and rock names
is small, certainly when compared to the profusion of specific names in the
biologicalsciences.
Onthe otherhand,former 80Sweil80Slivingauthorshavecontinuedtoformulate
new technical terms, mostly derived from the Greek, andthese have been con
tinuously introduced into later publications. I did not see it to be my task to
increase the quantity of technical terms or to replace existing ones by newones.
I have tried to explain the most frequently used terms and, moreover, to use 80S
often 80Spossible the terminology ofthe allied sciences.
VI Preface to the First Edition
In this way the book attempts to lead to an understanding of mineralogy,
butisnotintendedto replace a systematictextbook. Myfirst aim was to provide
the fundamentals for a genetic consideration of crystals and rocks. In order to
provide space to deal with these questions, much information is presented as
tables in the appendix. I believe that the 300minerals (522mineral names) will
be sufficient for the ordinary student and that the 93rock types give him a
sufficient survey of variety.
The book resultsfrom the generallecturesI have given since 1927in Rostock
and Göttingen. Inthe literatureindexI havespecified thesources ofillustrations
and some statements, but many suggestions by others may have been forgotten
in the course of years. Results of my own investigation and reflection, which
would have been published separately in normal times, have also been incor
porated. The diagrams of the 32crystal clasaes are drawn according to NIGGLI.
The crystal structures, unless otherwise specified, have been taken from the
Strukturbericht. I owe thanks for much asaistance to the former and present
members of the Institutes in Rostock and Göttingen. In particular, the crystal
drawings were, for the most part, drawn anew by Mr. WALTER SCHERF, and
some by Dr.1. MEGGENDORFER, who also made the microscopic illustrations
using the Edinger drawing apparatus. She also drew the diagrams of elose
packed spheres as weIlas some others. Dr. K.JASMUND provided the Figs. 230,
233-235, 277, and 350. Professor KORITNIG compiled the mineral tables and
Dr. P. SCHNEIDERHÖHN the subject index. Both assisted in reading proof.
Foreign literature, as far as it was attainable at the end of 1947, was taken
into consideration. Some references were added even during the correction of
proofs.
April 1949 CARL W. CORRENS
Contents
PARTI.CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
J.Crystal Mathematics
1.Introduction . . . . . . . 3
2.DescriptiveCrystallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Law of Constancyof Interfaoial Angles p.6. - AngularMeasurement p.6. - Axial
IntereeptsandIndicesp.8.- CrystalCalculationsp. 11.- Law ofRationalIndices
p. 12.- Zones p. 12.- Axial Systemsp. 13.- The StereographieProjection p. 14.
3.Crystal Symmetry . 18
SimpleSymmetryOperationsp.18.- Combined Symmetry Operationsp.20.
4.The32CrystalClasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
TheTriclinicClasseap.21.- TheMonoclinicClassesp.22.- TheOrthorhombicClasses
p. 25. - Significance of OlassSymbols p.28. - The Trigonal Classesp.29. - The
HexagonalClassesp.37.- TheTetragonalOlasaesp.39.- TheCubicClassesp.43.
AdditionalSymbolssndNamesforthe32CrystalOlassesp.48.
5.Space Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The 14Translation Lattices (Space Lattices) p.50. - The Way to the 230Space
Groups p.52.- Space LatticeDescriptionp.53.
Il. Crystal Chemistry
1.lonieBonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
lonic Radii p. 55. - Radius Ratios and Coordination Number p.56. - Deviations
from Theoryp.59.- Pauling's Rules p.60.- Polymorphismp.61.- Isomorphism
p. 63.- CamouflageandCapturep.65.
2.Transitionto OtherBondTypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Polarization, Layer Lattices p.65. - Complex Ions p.67. - Crystal Chemical For
mulae p.68.- Structuresofthe Silicates p. 68.- ModelStructuresp. 78.- Struo
tural (OH) p.78.- StructuralWater (H 0)p. 79.
2
3.Covalent Bonding . . . 81
4.IntermolecularBonding . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.MetallicBonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
PureMetalsp.83.- Alloysp.85.- The Hume-RotheryRule p.86.- LavesPhases
p.86.- Transitionto OtherBondTypes p. 87.
6.SummaryofBondTypes. . . . . . 89
7.CrystalStructuresaaPackedSpheres 90
8.Deviationsfrom IdealCrystals . . . . 90
Defects p.90.- Regular Intergrowths p.92.- Imperfectionsp.93.- Dislocations
p.95.- Twinningp.96.- Summaryp. 100.
VIII Contents
m.
CrystalPhysics
1.PlasticDeformation . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
General p.101. - Meehanical Twinning p.101. - Translation Gliding p. 102.
TheoryofPlastie Deformationp. 106.
2.StrengthProperties . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Cleavagep.107.- Oompresston-,Tensile-,andBending-Strengthp.HO.- Hsrdness
p. HO.- Abrasion Strengthp. H3. - PerousslonandPressure Figures p.H3.
3.ElastieBehavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H4
Free Thermal Dilatation p. H4. - Uniform (hydrostatie) Compression p.H6.
Pyroeleetrieityp. H8.- Piezoeleetrieityp. H8.- Theory ofUnilateralStressp.H8.
4.Crystal OpticsofVisibleLight . H9
Introduetionp.H9.
a) OptieallyIsotropieSubstances H9
Refraetionp. H9.- TotalRefleetionp. 120.- Refleetionp.120.- Lusterp.120.
StreakP:120.- Dispersion p.120.- Indexof Refraction Determination by the
ImmersionMethod p. 121.
b) OpticallyAnisotropie Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
The Discovery of Double Refraetion p.122. - Wave Normals p.122. - The
Indicatrix p. 124. - Polarizers p. 128. - An Anisotropie Plate in Parallel and
PolarizedLightp.130.- ABirefringentPlatebetweenOroesedPolarizersp.131.-
The Universal Stage p.137. - The Conoscopep.137. - Strain Birefringence
p.141.- FormBirefringencep. 141.- Crystal StruetureandBirefringencep. 142.
e) OpticallyAetiveCrystals . . . . . . . . . . . 142
d) StronglyAbsorbingCrystals . . . . . . . . . . 143
MethodsofObservationP:143.- Theoryp.144.
e) FIuoresceneeandDlscoloration Halos • . • . . . 144
5.X.rayOptics . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 145
Introduetionp.145.- TheLaue Equationsp.146.- TheBraggEquation p. 149.
Interrelation of the Bragg and Laue Equations P:149. - The Powder Diffraetion
Pattern p. 150. - Use of Powder Diffraetion Patterns p.151. - Fiber Diagrams
p.153.- Strueture Determination p. 154. - Rotating Crystal Methods p.156. -
The Laue Method p. 159. - The Reeiprocal Lattice p. 160. - Fourier Synthesis
p. 160. - Eleetron Diffraetion p.160. - Neutron Diffraetion p. 160. - Eleetron
Mieroscopyp.161.
IV.CrystalGrowth andDissolution
1.GeometricalRelationsWps .... •... • . • .. ...... ... .... 162
Introduetion p.162.- Growth Veloeitiesp.162.- Dependence on External Condi
tions p.164.- Fibrous Growth p.164.- Dissolution p. 165.
2.StrueturalConsiderations. . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . 166
Depositional Energy of Ionie Crystals p.166. - Lattice Energy of Ionie Crystals
p. 167.- Growth ofNaClCrystals p.168.- Dissolution ofNaClCrystals p. 169.
Growth of80Real Crystal p.170.- DepositionofForeign Matterp. 172.- Growth
Aecessoriesp.173.- Crystal Growth Not Leading to Convex Polyhedra p. 174.
Destruetion of 80Real Crystal p.176. - FutureProspeets p. 177.
PARTTI.PETROLOGY
V.BornePhysical·ChemicalFundarnentals
1.Nueleationand GrowthofNuclei . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 181
MeltingPointDeterminationp. 181.- Supercoolingp.181.- CentersofNueleation
p.182.
Contenta IX
2.SingleComponentSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Phases p. 183.- Equilibrium p. 183.- The System H p. 183.- Polymorphism
20
p. 184.- The System Si0 p. 185.- The System Carbon p.187.
2
3.TwoComponentSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
The System KNOS-H p.187. - The System Diopside-Anorthite p.188.
20
Eutectic Structures p. 189. - Influence of Pressure p. 191. - Gibbs' Phase Rule
p.192.- The System Leucite-SiO. p. 193.- Mixed Crystal Systems (Solid Solu
tion) p. 195.- IonicCapturep. 195.
4.ThreeComponentSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
The Concentration Triangle p. 198.- The SystemAnorthite-.Albite-Diopside p. 199.
5.HydrousMelta 201
The Binary System Si0 p.202. - The System Diopeide-Anorthite-HjD
2-H20
p.202.- The System Albite-Anorthite-Hg) p.203.- The Alkali Feldspar System
p.203.
VI.Formation ofMagmatic (Igneons) Rocks
1.Differentiation 204
The Rea.ction Principle p.204. - Filter Pressing p.206. - Assimilation p. 206.
FluidImmiscibilityp.209.
2.SurveyofIgneousRocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
MethodsofClassificationp. 210.- Structuresp.210.- Texturesp.212.- Geological
Classifications p. 213. - Mineralogical Classification p.214. - Chemica.l Classifica.
tions p.217.- Abundance of Igneous Rock Types p.219.
3.Abundanceofthe Chemica.lElementa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Summaryp.220.- Titanium p. 222.- Phosphorus p. 223.- Zirconium p.223.
Sulfur p.223.
4.The Role ofVolatile Constituenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
The System SaIt-Water p.224. - Supercritica.I Phenomena p.225. - The Com
plete Diagram p.226. - Volati!e Constituenta snd IntrusionofMagmas p.229.
Differentiation by Volatile Constituenta p.232. - Summary of Magmatic Mineral
Formationp. 234.
5.Pneumato-hydrothermalMineralFormation . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Pegmatites p.235. - Hydrothermal Mineral Deposita, Ore Veins p.236.- Exhala-
tiveMineral Formationp. 240.
Vll. WeatheringandSoU MineralFormation
1.Mechanica.lWea.thering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 243
ThermalWeatheringp. 243.- FrostWedging p.243.- SaltExpansionp.244.
2.ChemicalWeathering . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Solution p. 245.- SilicateWeathering p.245.
3.TheBehaviorofSi,.Al,andFein Soils . . . . 246
Colloidsp.246. - The Behavior of Silicon p.248. - The Behavior of .Aluminium
p.248.- Formationof.AluminiumSilicatesp.248.- The BehaviorofIronp.249.-
Soi!Profiles p.249. .
4.Wea.thering of OreDeposita 251
Iron-bearingOresp. 251.- LeadandCopperOresp.251.- CementationZonep.251.
vm.
SedimentaryRocks
1.ClasticSedimenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Introduction p.253. - Grain-size Distribution p.255. - Graphical Representation
of Size Distribution p.255. - Psephites p.257. - Psammites p.257. - Guide
MineralsP:258.- Plaoer Depositionp.261.- Pelitesp.262.- Sedimentary Struc
turesandTexturesp.263.
x
Contents
2.Limestone andDolomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
SolubilityofCalciumCarbonatep.265.- TerrestrialLimestone Formationp. 267.
Marine, Inorganic Carbonate Formation and Dissolution p.267. - Marine Bio
ohemical Carbonate Formation p.267. - Dolomite Formation p.271. - Nomen
claturep. 272.
3.SedimentaryIronandManganeseDeposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
TerrestrialIronOreFormationp.272.- Red.oxPotentialp.273.- Marine IronOre
Formation p.274. - Glauconite Formation p. 276.- Sulfide Formation p. 277.
SedimentaryManganeseDepositap. 278.
4.PhosphateDeposits 279
5.SiliceousRocks. . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.EvaporiteDeposits . . . . . . . . . . 282
The SourceofIonsp.282.- TerrestrialEvaporiteFormationp.282.- SaltContent
of Sea Water p.283. - Mineralogy of Marine Evaporites p.283. - The System
CaSO~-H20 p.284. - Two Salta in Aqueous Solution P:285. - The Order of
Crystallization from Sea Water p.286.
7.RareElementsinBiogenieand Chemical Sediments. . . . . 289
8.Structuresand TexturesofBiogenieand OhemioalSediments . 291
IX.MetamorphiePetrogenesis
1.TypesofMetamorphism . . . . . . 292
2.ChemicalProcessesinMetamorphism 293
a) IsochemicalMetamorphism . . . 293
IX) Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . 293
Diagenesis p.293.- Isophase Recrystallization p. 293.- Allophase Recrystalli
zation p.294. - The Wollastonite Phase Diagram p.295. - Reactions in the
Solid Statep.297.- PoreFilmsand PoreMeltsp. 297.
ß) Faeies Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
The ZonalConcept p. 298.- DefinitionofMineral Facies p.298.- Construction
of ACF and A'KF Diagrams p.3oo. - Contaet Metamorphie Faeies p.301.
RegionalMetamorphicFaeies p.303.
y) RetrogradeMetamorphism 305
b) AllochemicalRecrystallization.Metasomatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
General p.305.- Dolomitizationp.306.- Silicification p.306.- Kaolinization
p. 307. - Sericitization p.308. - Serpentinization p.308. - Skarn p.308.
Hydrothermal Ore Metasomatism P:308. - Greisen P:309.- Alkali Metasoma
tism p.309.
c) FabricofRecrystallizedRocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Pseudomorphs p.309. - Relics p.309. - Blastic Structure p.310.- The Idio
blastic Series p.310.- Porphyroblasts p.311.- Concretions p.311.
3.RockDeformation 312
FabricofDeformed Rocks p.312.- Description of Preferred Orientation (Foliation)
p.312.- LaminarMovementp.314.- Homogeneousand HeterogeneousDeformation
p.315. - Simple Shear Translation p. 315.- Formation of Preferred Orientation
(Foliation) p.316. - Deformation with Fracture p.317. - Combined Effects of
DeformationandRecrystallizationp.318.- Stress andAntistressMineralsp. 320.
Polymetamorphie Rocks p.321.
4.TheProblemofAnatexisandthe Originof Granite . . . 321
5.NomenclatureofMetamorphismandMetamorphieRocks 323
a) Definitions ofMetamorphicProcesses 323
b) MetamorphicRock Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . 324