Into the Nano Era: Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS PDF
Preview Into the Nano Era: Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS
SpringerSeriesin MATERIALS SCIENCE 106 SpringerSeries in MATERIALS SCIENCE Editors:R.Hull R.M.Osgood,Jr. J.Parisi H.Warlimont The Springer Series in Materials Science covers the complete spectrum of materials physics, includingfundamentalprinciples,physicalproperties,materialstheoryanddesign.Recognizing theincreasingimportanceofmaterialsscienceinfuturedevicetechnologies,thebooktitlesin thisseriesreflectthestate-of-the-artinunderstandingandcontrollingthestructureandproperties ofallimportantclassesofmaterials. 98 PhysicsofNegativeRefraction 104 TransparentConductiveZincOxide andNegativeIndexMaterials BasicsandApplications OpticalandElectronicAspects inThinFilmSolarCells andDiversifiedApproaches Editors:K.Ellmer,A.Klein,andB.Rech Editors:C.M.KrowneandY.Zhang 105 DiluteIII-VNitrideSemiconductors andMaterialSystems 99 Self-OrganizedMorphology PhysicsandTechnology inNanostructuredMaterials Editor:A.Erol Editors:K.Al-ShameryandJ.Parisi 106 IntoTheNanoEra 100 SelfHealingMaterials Moore’sLawBeyondPlanarSiliconCMOS AnAlternativeApproach Editor:H.R.Huff to20CenturiesofMaterialsScience Editor:S.vanderZwaag 107 OrganicSemiconductors inSensorApplications 101 NewOrganicNanostructures Editors:D.A.Bernards,R.M.Ownes, forNextGenerationDevices andG.G.Malliaras Editors:K.Al-Shamery,H.-G.Rubahn, andH.Sitter 108 EvolutionofThin-FilmMorphology ModelingandSimulations ByM.PelliccioneandT.-M.Lu 102 PhotonicCrystalFibers PropertiesandApplications 109 ReactiveSputterDeposition ByF.Poli,A.Cucinotta, Editors:D.DeplaandS.Mahieu andS.Selleri 110 ThePhysicsofOrganicSuperconductors 103 PolaronsinAdvancedMaterials andConductors Editor:A.S.Alexandrov Editor:A.Lebed Volumes50–97arelistedattheendofthebook. Howard R. Huff Editor Into The Nano Era Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS With136 Figures Dr.HowardR.Huff 2116CumberlandHillDrive Henderson,NV89052,USA E-mail:[email protected] SeriesEditors: ProfessorRobertHull ProfessorJürgenParisi UniversityofVirginia UniversitätOldenburg,FachbereichPhysik Dept.ofMaterialsScienceandEngineering Abt.Energie-undHalbleiterforschung ThorntonHall Carl-von-Ossietzky-Strasse9–11 Charlottesville,VA22903-2442,USA 26129Oldenburg,Germany ProfessorR.M.Osgood,Jr. ProfessorHansWarlimont MicroelectronicsScienceLaboratory InstitutfürFestkörper- DepartmentofElectricalEngineering undWerkstofforschung, ColumbiaUniversity Helmholtzstrasse20 SeeleyW.MuddBuilding 01069Dresden,Germany NewYork,NY10027,USA SpringerSeriesinMaterialsScience ISSN0933-033X ISBN978-3-540-74558-7 e-ISBN978-3-540-74559-4 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008925374 ©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2009 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting, reproductiononmicrofilmorinanyotherway,andstorageindatabanks.Duplicationofthispublicationor partsthereofispermittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheGermanCopyrightLawofSeptember9,1965, initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer-Verlag.Violations areliabletoprosecutionundertheGermanCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply, evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelaws andregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Typesetting:DatapreparedbyVTEXusingaSpringerTEXmacropackage Coverconcept:eStudioCalamarSteinen Coverproduction:WMXDesignGmbH,Heidelberg SPIN:12112692 57/3180/VTEX Printedonacid-freepaper 987654321 springer.com Thissnapshot oftheICindustryandseveral opportunitiesfor enhancedgrowthinthecomingnanotechnologyeraisdedicated, inmemoriam,toRobertCahnandFredSeitz,whopassed away duringthepreparationofthisbook. RobertCahn(1924–2007), FRS,UniversityofCambridge, and Fred Seitz(1912–2008), RockefellerUniversity,President,Emeritus and NationalAcademyofSciences,Past President Foreword Silicon and Electronics Thereadershipofthismonograph,IntoTheNanoEra–Moore’sLawBeyondPlanar SiliconCMOSmaybesurprisedtofindthattherewasatimewhensiliconmaterials didnotreignsupreme.WhilesiliconwasutilizedbothbeforeandduringWorldWar Iforcodedwirelessdetectors,itwasquicklyreplacedbyVacuumTubeElectronics inthelate1910sand1920s.Thehamradioproponentsoftenpreferredtousegalena (PbS) in the 1920s, a naturally occurring mineral which was much less expensive thanpolycrystallinesilicon.Inthelate1930sandwiththeadventofWorldWarII, however,siliconbecamethepreferredmaterialforradardetectors.Siliconhascon- tinuedtobethedominant(andpre-eminent)materialduringtherestofthetwentieth century (although germanium and silicon transistors were commercialized during the1950s).Duringthelastseveraldecades,wehavecomefromtheelectronicsrevo- lutioninitiatedbythetransistorinthelate1940stothemicroelectronicsrevolution, exemplifiedbytheintegratedcircuit(IC)thatwasinventedinthelate1950s,totoday whereweareonthevergeofthenano-technologyRevolution.Ofcourse,manyother materialsareutilizedintoday’smostadvancedICs andsurelythiswillbethecase inthenano-technologyofthefuture;yet,thebasestillappearstoincludesilicon. Howard Huff and his authors have developed this monograph to guide us into the nano-technology era by focusing on some current aspects of silicon materials relevanttothefabricationofICsandseveralpotentialopportunitiesinthenanoera. The importance of defects and their control, both in the as-grown silicon and dur- ingthechip-makingprocess,isemphasized.Indeed,theadmonitiontomakecertain that the quality of the silicon used in chips should be examined carefully before rather than after making the chips repeats one of the basic principles that we dis- coveredduringWorldWarII.Thatis,wefoundbyusingmetallurgical-grade(poly- crystalline)siliconinthe1940sthattheerraticbehaviorandirreproducibilityofthe electroniccharacteristicsofdetectorswasdependantonthepriorhistoryofthesili- viii SiliconandElectronics conmaterialutilized.Thismonographnotonlystirsupoldmemoriesoftheearlier days but brings me to further appreciate the fabrication of today’s opto-electronic devices. Andsuchalsoappearstobethecasewiththe“bottom-up”fabricationtechnology inthenanoera.Indeed,itappearsthatthedrivetominiaturizationisfinallyapproach- ing the stage where quantum effects will become of the essence, which is quite an achievementwhenIrecallthehamradioyearsofthe1920sandtheearliestsilicon materials utilized for radar in the late 1930s and early 1940s. I wish Howard Huff andthepersonnelinvolvedinthecreationofthismonographanditsreadershipwell intheexcitingandnever-endingjourneytowardsthenextrevolutionininformation andcommunicationstechnology–thenanoera. NewYork,March2008 FredSeitz(deceasedMarch2008) Foreword Silicon and the III–V’s: Semiconductor Electronics (Electron, Hole, and Photon) Forever WithoutsiliconandtheIII–Vsemiconductors,today’sworldofelectronicsdoesnot exist,wouldnotexist,likelycouldnotexist.Thereisnosubstituteforthesemicon- ductor, Si ranking at the top. I learned about transistors and semiconductors from JohnBardeen,andthenaboutdiffusedSidevices,intheirinception,withJohnMoll (andCarlFroschandtheoxide)beforelearningfurtherfromwork,colleagues,meet- ings,andjournalarticles.Veryearly,forexample,itwasatrickofjunctionassembly ofmySitunneldiodesthatrevealedphonon-assistedtunnelingsostrikingly(1959), thefirstunambiguousexperimentshowinginelastictunneling,whichmadeitpossi- ble for R.H. Hall and me to introduce into solid-state science and technology (via Si!)thenow-universaltunnelingspectroscopy.WhydeviatefromSi,whygooffex- ploring the III–V’s, when Si proved to be so rich and wondrous – with Bell Labs’ oxide and diffused device technology at its pinnacle; indeed, the very technology that,movingwest,spawnedthe“chip”andSiliconValley?AndwhataboutSi,and itsfurtherrole?Canwenowbesobold(sorude)andcommitthesinofevenasking thequestion? At the 1962 Institute of Radio Engineers (I.R.E., now the I.E.E.E.) Solid State Device Research Conference, Art D’Asaro and I engaged in a friendly argument withBobNoyceinwhichwedefendedthecasefortheIII–V’s(lightemitters)while Bob argued for a still greater future for Si. Bob knew that Art and I, at Bell Labs, knew about Si from the beginning. Why leave it? We, and Noyce, were both right and both wrong! The two, Si and the III–V’s, are complementary. We need both. Weneedtheelectron,hole,andphoton,thethreesouniqueinperformanceandtied togethersoincestuouslyacrosstheenergygap.Recall:noenergygap,nosemicon- x SiliconandtheIII–Vs ductor,noelectronandhole,notransistor,nolightemitter,nosolarcell!Whatelseis likethis,andtechnologicallysotractable?Nothingapproachestheuniquenessofthe semiconductorinwhatitdoesandinhowitallowsustoimpose,torenderamazing tinysub-microscopicconnectedactive-devicegeometriesinacrystallinesubstance, in a nano-ordered substance, and as a consequence realize unbelievable electronic functions–the“chip.” We can now properly ask: When we were shown in John Moll’s group (Bell Labs,1954–1955)abagfullofDuPontSineedles–nano-rods,asitwere–should wehavetriedtoattackatsuchanopportunemomentnano-assembly?To,say,assem- bleatonceactivemicroscopiccircuitry?Orshouldwehaveproceeded,ashappened, togrowcrystalsfromtheneedles(i.e.,“self-assemble”bulkcrystallineSiatom-by- atom)andproceedbit-by-bittothe“chip”?Tobesure,shouldwehaveproceeded, Oh,soslowlybut,Oh,sosuccessfully?Whocouldhavepredicted,inthebeginning, allthatwouldbeneededtomaketoday’sSi“chip”?Andnow,incontrast,whereand whatisthescienceandtechnologyofdirectnano-assembly?Isit,say,anultra-tiny complex system that must take on great variety and form and not be just the bland simple atom-stacking of crystal growth? Is this (a complex system) even possible withoutinvokingsomeformofsorcery,i.e.,withoutfacingtheabyssoftotalguess- ingoroutrightchicanery?Doesitmakesenseandinwhatsubstance?Dowewishto abandonSi?Ifso,why? WenotonlybuildinSi,itteachesus.Forexample,itistheSip–n–p–nswitch,in itssuccessfulformasthethyristor,thatteachesuswhyaCMOSelementina“chip” breaksdownorwhyaIII–Vtransistorlaserswitchesandexhibitsnegativeresistance. Asamatteroffact,itwasthep–n–p–nswitchthattookSito“SiliconValley.”Itis Sithatwehavemoststudiedandunderstandbest,andthatinformsusfurtherinhow torealizeastillsmallerandmoresophisticated“chip.”Ifthereisanythingpastthe integratedcircuit,the“chip,”itisSithatguidesustowardsit. FromthestandpointoftheIII–Vsemiconductor,heterostructuresanddirecten- ergy gaps, and quantum wells, we see silicon’s strengths and weaknesses. We see, in comparison with III–V’s, better and worse choices, what can be done profitably and what can not. Silicon, from 1-ton single crystal ingots to the tiniest integrated circuits,issovaluableandsuchaperfectguidetowhatispossibleintheconstruc- tionofultra-smalldevices,thatwemustcontinuetostudyit.Wecannotaffordnot to,andthusoweaconsiderabledebttoourcolleaguesHowardHuffandhisauthors forexposingustomoreSiscienceandtechnologyasweenterthenanotechnology era. The most questionable topic is that of device self-assembly. We know it works for crystal growth, even in the case of a 1-ton Si crystal, but does it work for the most intricate and tiniest integrated circuits? Note that carbon self-assembles into diamond,butwepolishandpatterntodevelopthemirrorfacetsthatmakediamond anattractiveandexpensivejewel.WhenSiself-assembles,itistoosimple.Wepat- tern and process it, at increasingly tiny size, into a more complex and useful form, intoanintegratedcircuit,a“chip.”Nowhowsmallcanitbe,ordowelookforother ways(heterojunctions,quantumwells,etc.)toobtainhigherperformance?Concern- SiliconandtheIII–Vs xi ing“self-assembly,”whereandwhatisthesciencetomakeitrealandnotmerelya wishorjustaname? IconsiderSianditsstudy,withtheaidandaddedperspectiveoftheIII–Vsemi- conductor (and quantum wells), as holding the answer to whether “self-assembly” makessense.Weallgetoldstudyingtheabundantlyrichandfertilesemiconductor, but the semiconductor itself, because of the gift of the electron, hole, and photon, andtheiramazinglyconnectedperformance,doesnotweakenorage.Itisnotgoing away.WehavenochoicebuttostudySiandtheIII–Vfamilyofmaterials.Nothing elsehasworkedsowellinelectronicsorpromisessomuchmore.Thereisreasonfor thesemiconductortoprevail,andforustowelcomethisnewbookofHowardHuff andhisauthors. Urbana,April2008 NickHolonyak,Jr.
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