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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Featuring over 20 new entries, International Relations: The Key Concepts, now in its second edition, is the essential guide for anyone interested in internationalaffairs.Comprehensiveanduptodate,itintroducesthemost importantthemesininternationalrelationsinthepost-9/11era.Keyareas coverinternationalcriminallaw,humanrights,thedevelopingworld(the Arab League, African Union), globalization and strategic studies. New entries include: • English School • Digital Divide • War on Terror • Bush Doctrine • International Criminal Court • Legitimacy • Global Warming • Unilateralism Featuring suggestions for further reading as well as a unique guide to websitesoninternationalrelations,thisaccessibleguideisaninvaluableaid to an understanding of this expanding field; ideal for the student and non-specialist alike. MartinGriffithsisAssociateProfessorattheDepartmentofInternational Business and Asian Studies at Griffith University, Australia. He is the author of Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations, also available from Routledge. Terry O’Callaghan is Senior Lecturer in the School of International Studies at the University of South Australia. Steven C. Roach is Assistant Professor of International Affairs in the DepartmentofGovernmentandInternationalAffairsattheUniversityof South Florida. He is the author of Politicizing the International Criminal Court:TheConvergenceofPolitics,Ethics,andLaw(2006),CulturalAutonomy, MinorityRights,andGlobalization(2005),andeditorofCriticalTheoryand InternationalRelations:AReader(2007). ALSOAVAILABLEFROMROUTLEDGE Economics:TheBasics TonyCleaver 0-415-31412-7 978-0-415-31412-1 Politics:TheBasics SecondEdition StephenTansey 0-415-30329-X 978-0-415-30329-3 Sociology:TheKeyConcepts EditedbyJohnScott 0-415-34406-9 978-0-415-34406-7 FiftyMajorEconomists SecondEdition StevenPressman 0-415-36649-6 978-0-415-36649-6 TheRoutledgeCompaniontoGlobalEconomics EditedbyRobertBenyon 0-415-24306-8 978-0-415-24306-3 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The Key Concepts Second Edition Martin Griffiths, Terry O'Callaghan and Steven C. Roach First published 2002 by Routledge Second edition published 2008 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2002, 2008 Martin Griffiths, Terry O’Callaghan and Steven C. Roach All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-93408-3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–77436–5 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–77437–3 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–93408–3 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–77436–9 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–77437–6 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–93408–1 (ebk) CONTENTS Preface vi Introduction vii ListofKeyConcepts xiv KEYCONCEPTS 1 Appendix:InternationalRelationsWebSites 348 Bibliography 369 Index 400 v PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION This second edition of International Relations: The Key Concepts provides students of international relations with short introductory essays to the concepts and issues that are most likely to be encountered in the study of international relations. It builds on the central aim of the first edition, by updatingmanyoftheessaysofthekeyconceptsandaddingseveralconcepts associatedwithimportantnewdebatesininternationalrelations.Indoingso,it addresses many of the new concepts associated with the post-9/11 era, including the Bush Doctrine, Enemy Combatants, Pre-emption, War on Terror,AxisofEvil,Jihad,etc.Suchanerahasalsoprovidedanovelcontext forstudyingtheimportanceofexistingconceptsthatwerenotstressedinthe firstedition(i.e.unilateralismandtorture),yethavecometoshapeanddefine USforeignpolicyduringthepost-9/11era. The revised version also includes additional concepts and institutions associatedwithfourareasofinternationalrelations:(1)thedevelopingworld (Mercosur, African Union, Arab League), (2) international criminal law (InternationalCriminalCourt(ICC)andInternationalCriminalTribunals), (3) Human Rights (Human Security), and (4) strategic studies (Coercion). Accordingly, the second edition seeks to be more inclusive without being comprehensive,morerelevantthansimplybeinguptodate.Inall,thereare21 conceptsthathavebeenaddedtothisnewedition(10thathavebeendropped from the first edition). Together, they reflect a wider array of relevant and previously under-emphasised introductory essays and an expanded range of importantnewdebatesininternationalrelations. Giventheexpandedscopeofthiseditionandthehistoricalimportanceof thepost-9/11era,Ihaveincludedabriefintroductionthatdiscussesseveral emergent challenges and the central debates in the field of international relations. In addition, I have updated and expanded the list of web sites to reflect the rapidly growing number of non-governmental organisations, researchinstitutes,andacademicjournalsininternationalrelations. Steven C. Roach University of South Florida March 2007 vi INTRODUCTION International relations: conceptual issues and challenges International relations (IR) is the study of the political and social interactionofstate,non-stateactors,andindividuals.Inrecentyears,the increasing interaction among these actors, coupled with advances in informational technology and the spread of human rights, have raised many new questions for IR scholars, practitioners, and students. For instance,whydostatesnowelecttodelegatemoreoftheirauthoritytothe international level? How does this process explain the capacity of international institutions, notably the United Nations (UN), World TradeOrganisation(WTO),andtheInternationalCriminalCourt (ICC),toaddressthesocial,economic,legal,andhumanitarianproblems that cut across nation-state boundaries? Moreover, which theories in IR allowustobestexplainthechangingdynamicsofinternationalissuessuch as environmental pollution, humanitarian emergencies, global terrorism, theAIDS/HIVpandemic,theproliferationofnuclearweaponsandtrade disputes?AndhowshouldweapplyIRtheorytodeviseeffectivepolicies that can resolve the serious effects of these global problems? Toaddressthesequestions,weneedtofirstappreciatetheimportanceof internationalrelationstheory.Theory,inthissense,offerstheconceptual tools to accomplish three basic tasks: to analyse the impact of rules and decisionsonstatebehaviour;tounderstandthechangingdimensionsand limits of power structures, institutions and order, including the role of greater transparency (access to information) and accountability; and to promotetheidealsofjustice,greatersocialinclusion,andequality.Inshort, theoryisaboutdescribingrealityandgeneratingthehistoricalandpractical knowledge needed to resolve problems and promote the above ideals. Whetherthismeansapplyingarigorous,scientificassessmentoftheeffects of low educationalstandards on civilwars inAfricaduring the 1990s, or understanding the oppression of women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan (1996–2001), it is essential that theory be employed to understand the increasinglycomplex policy and ethical challenges facing state and international political leaders. vii INTRODUCTION Today, policymakers confront the ongoing challenge of building consensus around complex issues related to maintaining and promoting internationalpeaceandsecurity.Inlightofthe9/11attacksontheWorld Trade Center and Pentagon, US foreign policy now, more than ever, requiresnew strategicprioritiesand thinkingtoaddress globalproblems. Andwhilethereisnoeasysolutionorfixperse,wealsoneedtobewaryof thelimitsandpoliticalfalloutofrelyingtooheavilyonmilitarysolutionsto resolveourproblems.Nowhereisthisperhapsmoreevidentthanwiththe unprecedentedformulationofenemycombatants,whichhasallowedthe UnitedStatesgovernmenttoengageinreportedactsoftorturethatviolate the Geneva Conventions and other well established international legal mechanisms. Thus, of the many challenges facing international policymakers and politicalleaders,theglobalwaronterrorismisarguablythemostpressing (thoughglobalwarmingmayalsobeconsideredequallyimportant).Here, we must continue to strike some credible balance between international anddomesticsecurityconcernsandtheneedforjustice,ethics,civilrights, andfreedom.Howstudentsandscholarseffectivelyengagethistaskwillof course depend on how they appreciate the historical and theoretical meaningofconceptsandissues.Or,alternatively,howtheyareabletolink theissuesandconceptswiththerelevantpolicyandtheoreticaldebatesthat informandshapetheirmeaningandsignificanceininternationalrelations. BelowarethreeoftheprincipaltheoreticaldebatesinIRwithwhichallIR studentsneedtobeacquainted.Together,theyshowhowIRscholarsand practitioners frame the basic questions and issues of their research and policy analysis regarding power politics, interests, identities, values, and new norms and practices (i.e. sovereignty, human rights, and environmentalprotection)ininternationalrelations. FRAMING THE ISSUES: THEORETICAL DEBATES The origins of the first debate can be traced back to the early studies of internationalpoliticsintheUnitedKingdomandUnitedStatesduringthe 1930sand1940s.Atthistime,E.H.Carr’sTheTwentyYearsCrisisemerged asoneofthemostimportanttextsofInternationalRelations(Carr,1946). Carr, for instance, argued that the failure of the League of Nations to contain aggression symptomised the tension between the League’s adherence to the ideals of peace and democratic order and the political realitiesofnationalaggression.Byneglectingthelatter,theLeaguefailedto takestockofthepoliticalandsocialrealitiesthatconflictedwithandoften underminedtheenactmentoftheseprinciples.Realists,therefore,believed thatpoliticalinterestsneededtobedefinedintermsofpowerobjectives; viii INTRODUCTION whilst idealists insisted on the need to formulate and implement international principles of peace and tolerance. Naturally, the devastating effects of the Second World War had convincedmanythatviolenceandwarcouldnotbeignored.Infact,they argued,itwaspreciselytheabidingadherencetomoralprinciplesthatfor some had become the very source of national aggression and conflict. Hitler,forinstance,invokedtheLeagueCovenant’sencodeddemocratic principle of the right to self-determination to justify the conquest of the Sudetenland (to uphold the right to self-determination of German nationals living in this area). In the United States and United Kingdom, therefore,politicalrealismbecametheestablishedconceptualframework forstudyinginternationalorderandrelationsamongstates.Itwasbasedon twotenets:1)thatstatesdefinedtheirpoliticalinterestsintermsofpower; and 2)that order reflected a delicateyetdiplomaticallyengagedeffort to work with, and harness the normative and structural constraints of the balance of power (in the international realm) to prudent foreign policy making.Asoneofthefirsttextsto offerasystematicstudyofthepower relationsamongstates,HansMorgenthau’sPoliticsAmongNationsfocused on the relationship between political power interests and the laws and mechanicsofthebalanceofpower(Morgenthau,1948).Otherprominent diplomats,mostnotablyGeorgeKennanandJohnHerzwould goonto formulatethepolicyofcontainment(ofSovietinfluence)andthesecurity dilemma (in which one state’s attempts to make itself more secure only leads to greater insecurity), respectively. Bythe1950sand1960s,however,asecondgreatdebatewouldarise, which pitted historians and behavioural (positivist) social scientists. The latter, in this case, stressed the use of statistical analyses and hypothesis testing to test and measure the impact of rules and events on state behaviour.Intakingissuewiththisscientificpriority,historiansarguedthat the international system was an evolving process, requiring a historically based analysis of the changing laws and rules of the inter-state system. Despite this general disagreement, however, realism remained the dominant paradigm in international relations theory. Theterm‘paradigm’cametoprominenceinthephilosophyofscience inthe1960s,primarilythroughtheworkofThomasKuhn(1970).Briefly, he argued that a paradigm consists of a set of fundamental assumptions about the subject-matter of science. A paradigm is both enabling and constraining.Ontheonehand,ithelpstodefinewhatisimportanttostudy andsoaparadigmisindispensableinsimplifyingrealitybyisolatingcertain factors and forces from a multitude of innumerable possibilities. On the other hand,aparadigmisconstrainingsinceitlimitsour perceptual field (whatwe‘see’asthemostimportantactorsandrelationshipsinaparticular ix