International Law, nuclear weapons and nuclear energy: an appeal for reform

315 Pages·2016·2.74 MB·English

by  Marieke Roos

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INTERNATIONAL LAW,
NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND
NUCLEAR ENERGY:
AN APPEAL FOR REFORM

MARIEKE ROOS

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

DOCTOR LEGUM
(LLD)
in
PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
in the
FACULTY OF LAW
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
PROMOTOR: PROFESSOR HA STRYDOM

SEPTEMBER 2015
INTERNATIONAL LAW, NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND NUCLEAR
ENERGY: AN APPEAL FOR REFORM

MARIEKE ROOS

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

DOCTOR LEGUM
(LLD)
in
PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
in the
FACULTY OF LAW
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

PROMOTOR: PROFESSOR HA STRYDOM

September 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUMMARY ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x

ABBREVIATIONS xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 1

1.1 A brief introduction to the nuclear world 3
1.1.1 Nuclear energy 4
1.1.2 Disarmament efforts 7
1.1.3 Non-proliferation 10
1.1.4 The UN Security Council 12
1.1.5 The International Court of Justice 14
1.1.6 Regional efforts to regulate nuclear non-proliferation
and disarmament 18
1.2 Research question 20
1.3 Research justification 20
1.4 Research objective 21
1.5 Overview of current literature 22
1.6 Methodology and research scope 23
1.7 Organisation of chapters 24

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY 26

2.1 Nuclear technology 26
2.2 Historic overview of the discovery and development of nuclear
weapons and nuclear energy 29
2.3 Nuclear weapon arsenals 33
2.3.1 Weapon release procedures 35

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2.3.2 Nuclear weapon tests 36
2.4 Effects of a nuclear explosion 37
2.4.1 Blast 39
2.4.2 Heat 39
2.4.3 Initial radiation 40
2.4.4 Fallout 41
2.4.5 Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) 44
2.4.6 Damage to the ozone layer 44
2.4.7 Synergism 44
2.4.8 Nuclear war 44
2.5 Nuclear waste management 45
2.6 Nuclear power plants 47
2.7 Conclusion 49

CHAPTER 3: NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND ENERGY IN INTERNATIONAL
LAW 51

3.1 A brief introduction to public international law 51
3.2 The law applicable to nuclear weapons and nuclear energy 53
3.3 International instruments relating to nuclear weapons and
nuclear energy 54
3.3.1 Nuclear disarmament 56
3.3.2 Non-proliferation 65
3.3.2.1 Treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons 65
3.3.2.2 Nuclear-weapon-free zones 67
3.3.2.3 Draft nuclear weapons convention 69
3.3.2.4 Nuclear Terrorism Convention 70
3.3.3 Nuclear tests, outer space and the oceans 71
3.3.3.1 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the
Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water 71
3.3.3.2 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 72
3.3.3.3 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of

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States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,
Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 72
3.3.3.4 Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of
Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass
Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor
and in the Subsoil Thereof 73
3.3.4 Treaties regarding the effect of weapons on the environment 73
3.3.5 Nuclear energy 74
3.3.5.1 Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency 74
3.4 The International Court of Justice 77
3.4.1 Nuclear test cases 78
3.4.2 Nuclear weapons cases 79
3.5 Nuclear weapons in the context of the laws on the use of force 87
3.5.1 Ius ad bellum 87
3.5.2 Ius in bello 90
3.6 Conclusion 91

CHAPTER 4: REGULATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND ENERGY BY
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 93

4.1 The United Nations 94
4.1.1 The General Assembly 95
4.1.1.1 Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly
pertaining to nuclear weapons and nuclear energy 97
4.1.2 The Security Council 103
4.1.2.1 Maintenance of international peace and security 106
4.1.2.1.1 Chapter VI provisions – peaceful settlement 106
4.1.2.1.2 Chapter VII – “any means necessary” 107
4.1.2.2 Resolutions adopted by the Security Council pertaining
to nuclear weapons and nuclear energy 108
4.2 The International Atomic Energy Agency 111
4.2.1 Historical roots of the IAEA 112

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4.2.2 The objectives and mandate of the IAEA 113
4.2.3 Relationship with the United Nations 115
4.2.4 IAEA composition 116
4.2.5 Powers conferred upon the IAEA in terms of the NPT 117
4.2.6 IAEA safeguard system 118
4.2.7 IAEA shortcomings 121
4.3 Conference on Disarmament 123
4.4 The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation 124
4.5 Nuclear Suppliers Group 125
4.6 Regional organisations 126
4.6.1 Euratom 127
4.6.2 Nuclear Energy Agency 128
4.7 Conclusion 128

CHAPTER 5: AN ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR AND RADIOLOGICAL
INCIDENTS 130

5.1 The infamous three 132
5.1.1 Three Mile Island 132
5.1.2 Chernobyl 136
5.1.3 Fukushima Daiichi 148
5.2 Other nuclear power plant accidents 159
5.3 Accidents at other facilities that make use of nuclear energy 166
5.3.1 Nuclear powered vessel accidents 166
5.3.2 Nuclear powered space crafts 168
5.3.3 Radiological accidents 168
5.3.4 Radioactive consumer products 169
5.4 Nuclear facility breaches 170
5.4.1 Three examples of nuclear facility breaches 171
5.4.1.1 Mexico 171
5.4.1.2 South Africa 172
5.4.1.3 The Democratic Republic of the Congo 173

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5.4.2 Russia’s “loose nukes” 174
5.4.3 Possible consequences of nuclear facility breaches 175
5.5 Decommissioned nuclear reactors 176
5.6 Nuclear waste 178
5.7 The regulatory regime 180
5.7.1 Nuclear security 181
5.7.2 Nuclear safety 185
5.8 Conclusion 187

CHAPTER 6: THE NUCLEAR-WEAPONS CRISIS 190

6.1 States against nuclear weapons 191
6.1.1 The Non-Aligned Movement 191
6.1.2 New Agenda Coalition 193
6.1.3 Democracy is dead 193
6.2 Dropping the bomb – Hiroshima and Nagasaki 194
6.3 The nuclear arms race, the Cold War and the Cuban Missile Crisis 196
6.4 States that possess or are developing nuclear weapons 197
6.4.1 De jure nuclear-weapon states 199
6.4.2 De facto nuclear-weapon states 204
6.4.2.1 India 204
6.4.2.2 Pakistan 208
6.4.2.3 Israel 210
6.4.2.4 North Korea 212
6.4.3 Threshold nuclear-weapon states 218
6.4.3.1 South Korea 218
6.4.3.2 Syria 219
6.4.3.3 Iran 221
6.4.3.4 Iraq 232
6.5 Voluntary disarmament 235
6.5.1 Libya 235
6.5.2 South Africa 235

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6.5.3 Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan 237
6.6 Nuclear-weapon accidents 239
6.7 Conclusion 240

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 243

7.1 A few observations on the nature of public international law 245
7.2 Disarmament 247
7.3 Non-proliferation 250
7.4 Nuclear safety and security (including nuclear terrorism) 254
7.5 The IAEA 255
7.6 The Security Council 257
7.7 Summary of conclusions and recommendations 258

BIBLIOGRAPHY 261

INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS 292
International agreements 292
General Assembly Resolutions 295
Security Council Resolutions 296

INTERNATIONAL CASES 298

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SUMMARY

Nuclear discourse is a relatively new topic in academia – the first nuclear
developments took place in the 1930s, and the controversial nature of the subject
only began to unfold in the second half of the twentieth century. Although it is
commonly thought that the nuclear crisis disappeared together with the communist
threat at the end of the Cold War, this is simply not the case. A number of recent
developments have once again brought the nuclear issue to the fore.
The nuclear threat remains as relevant as it did at the end of World War II. Although
there are only five recognised nuclear states in terms of the unequal regime created
by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, a number of other states
have also been developing nuclear weapons or are harbouring nuclear ambitions.
Because of this, the current nuclear-weapons regime is threatened and its very
foundation is being questioned. Furthermore, with growing fears relating to global
warming, nuclear energy is becoming an increasingly attractive source of alternative
energy. This raises numerous concerns, particularly in relation to the safety and
security of these nuclear energy facilities. The regular occurrence of nuclear accidents
and security breaches at nuclear facilities renders these concerns valid.
This thesis seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the current legal
framework on nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. It focuses in particular on the
mandates of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the United Nations Security
Council. Based on an analysis of the current regulatory framework, it seeks to identify
key areas of concern and makes recommendations that are aimed at addressing these
concerns.

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