International Law, Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects

193 Pages·2006·145.048 MB·English

by  Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

International Law, Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects
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management.
ANA FILIPA VRDOLJAK is Marie Curie Fellow aactu ltthye oLfa wLa wD,e pUanritvmeresnitt,y Eofu rWoepsetaernn UAnuisvterrasliitay.
Institute, Florence and Senior Lecturer at the F
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The Edinburgh Building,
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
.cambridge.org
eee on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521841429
© Ana Filipa Vrdoljak 2006
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
for my parents
First published 2006
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13 978-0-521-84142-9 hardback
ISBN-10 0-521-84142-9 hardback
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CONTENTS
page ix
List of illustrations xii
Preface
Table of cases
Table of instruments
XxX1X
List of abbreviations
XXXIV
Note on the text
Introduction
Part One
NW
1 The State and national culture in the early nineteenth century
20
Protection of minorities in the nineteenth century
DD,
The rise of national cultural patrimony
Great exhibitions, South Kensington Museum and the creation
35
of national identity
2 International Law, international exhibitions in the
46
late nineteenth century
47
Colonised peoples and International Law in the nineteenth century
2)3)
Collection and display of empire
63
War and cultural objects of non-Europeans
713
3 Dismantling empires and post-First World War peace treaties
74
Minorities and the League of Nations
77
Restitution of cultural objects and post-First World War peace treaties
87
Restitution within the British Empire
Part Two
4 Colonised peoples and the League of Nations 103
Colonised peoples, their cultural property and the League of Nations 104
International Museum Office and restitution of cultural objects 108
United States and Native Americans: assimilation to Indian New Deal 118

5 Restitution in the mid twentieth century 130
Indigenous peoples, American identities and U N trusteeship Sr
Legal protection of cultural heritage during armed conflict at the mid century
Vij
Contents
ILLUSTRATIONS
Ser ing the Sec ponrde unWiourtledw eWnatre Ayeentlry ly
Restitution following
Native American cultures in a
ae
6 Genocidi e, human rii ghts and colonise‘sde d pepoepop les during g the Cold W;
ide and cul tural heritage 163
ghts during the Cold War
HSuhmaen er ights and group bul in
United States, indigenous peoples and the Cold War
Part Three
197
7 DDDeeecccooolllooonnniiisssaaattiitooinno n aannwddi tsShteoaltufet- dserutecescrtemisitsnuiatotinio onnt o cultural property 56 8 1.1 Hs.he llH . neBcakillaeyc,e , TrHuogbaanritn,i , 18a 67T,a s Rmeapnrioadnu cweo md acno urwteeasryi ngof ta hem arSionuetrh page XXxvill
Fe
RReessttiittuuttiioonn aanndd tthhee U19N7E0 SUCNOE SICnOte rgCoovnevrennmteinotna l Committee - 1.1 AJ. usRt. raSlmiiatnh . MuBsenejuamm.i n West’s YFoseph Banks, mezzotint, 62 x 38 cm,
Working towards a new international cultural order a April 1773, Published London, S. Hooper and J. R. Smith. 18
8 IInnddiiggeennoouuss pepoepolpesl,e s sealnfd- derteesrtmiitnuattiioonn aasn da pcurlotcuerasls rights 222 8 1.2 JRoehpnr oTdeuncneiedl , co“uTrhtee syH apofp yt he FaSmtiatley Liin brHayrdye ofP aNrke’w, PSuonucthh, W1a9l eJsu.l y 34
Assessment of the work of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee a Sal.
Implementing the 1970 UNESCO Convention a 1.3 Plan of the Building. Great Exhibition 1851, London, Day & Son,
38
bi Renegotiating relations between Indigenous Australians and museums =
3 1851.
e 2.1 Plates from the Catalogue of the Collection of Relics of the Late Captain
i; 9 Indigenous peoples, States and reconciliation 261 James Cook RN, FRS, exhibited by Mr ¥ Mackrell at the Colonial and
WSeGlIfP-d eatnedr mirneasttiiotunt ioann d oft hien d1i9g9e3n ouDsr afctu ltUuNra l Dheecrliatraagtei on Indian Exhibition 1886. Reproduced courtesy of Adrienne Kaeppler. 45
ae and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention 5a _ 2.2 Survey of floor plan of Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886 in
nate models for restitution to indigenous peoples oe Report of the Royal Commussioners of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition
5
5D
Aus an museums and the recollectii on of colonialism and reconciliation (London, 1886).
5
59)
Conclusion 2.3 Cover, Missionary Sketches, vol.3, no.111, October 1818.
299 2.4 Cast of the Eastern Gateway of the Great Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi
Select bibliography (V&A 1872-113-122), East Cast Court, South Kensington Museum,
Index 1872. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Victoria and
ae
883
Albert Museum. Reproduced courtesy of the Victoria and Albert
62
Museum.
2.5 Tippoo’s Tiger, Mysore, c.1790, painted wood, 177.8 cm long, V&A
182545. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Victoria and
Albert Museum. Reproduced courtesy of the Victoria and Albert
68
Museum.
3.1 Fragments of plaster casts of Indian architecture, Victoria and Albert
Museum, c.1909. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the
Victoria and Albert Museum. Reproduced courtesy of the Victoria
12
and Albert Museum.

3.2 Drawing of Gold Boat, Bowl and Necklet found in Ireland,
reproduced in Arthur J. Evans, On a votive deposit of Gold Objects
found on the North-West Coast of Ireland (1897) LV Archeologia
391, plate XXI.
List of illustrations
List of illustrations
344...312 EPUMUCRUEnnhnnxueotiiiposplvrvvotrueeeaesoomrurnrigssdbstcmriiiiuei.attto ca ypyynen hh ,d Ra loM oelffEu©C ,p x ch sPrPpoiIeeeoouTcnnnsudrdahnintmuigestse c,o iysya,e onyll dB n vvUo ,aaS1on annef8icri ci9vCodatat3ehu ih .rireo cs tonaef ie,PwxU ts ahahnTgyyiroioVr bd,vtiiu eootcosffr ttg f1soeor8aPtirreta9he tise3pnay te. h nhx Ve sohao ifyiPfn c©bl Whdti tvoP ootharere tnTlA inoidhlaanVtag’be s i,ser yct aralhtntUpevonCd n hare ion igMWvlai Aoue ©aulrr)ns.bml sao eebdin.rTu’tidtShysm a 4 e,nA- M Ml1ubu4es10sr9e7et36u 6u7.mm. : 66..34 eB(ARIMNa1xorn)e9ueh xcs piwth sarbMai enilo2vadtlu5edYy ia0somu ot, r(c in kbo e1),Cn S9od e e‘f4n RA r6$tvrie.M6teiecn sos7eroé w,9duP 4reoh2.ftd0roo ©e f0’nt ts ,Hho yR tea gh2e rRAer0pr onSG0aftroo 4e ,ponux thdhthc1 NieRuh.oib 1e cu©i,owR ert cSio tdkeR ce,a 2ookYfs 0cneo’ec0 k,rflpo1e kler‘u f,elAere1r lrp7tTl te ae2lh rrF9se A ooyruefa u A JgtnrMautooFchdnrfsuoeh yautu si tat nvherSisedeyuo1ok as 9uenm tT4tt i r15chCou,9Ah e ns4oernfts,6cSt i eeh neMaie rfstRvos.Fo’hoe rd o, csr lek0.otd rTe huefehngr eeh l l2Ae9rrt8, 1 , 18168 7
43 UtThnheie v eUrnRsiaivitenyrb soiotwfy PHeoonf unPsseyenl,nv saynGliavalla,en riynae .g o f nEot.h1n3o9l7o9g1y., RTehep roBdruocoekdly nc oMurutseesyu mo f 7.1 ME1tu8h7sn9eo-lu8om0g, i coaPfl h MootCodougerrrtan p hat A rtVti.hl e 1G4a6r0 de©nR eApPuarslotadcruea lcieEadxnh ibcMioutusireotneu,sm y, S oyfdP nhAeouyst,to rgarlaipahn y
1930, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Photograph Collection, Mviaseum Unit, Transparency Collection. 196
Sul boofu ivlBdreiono gk:l eynintn rteaMrniucoesr se udu©mr in2Ag0r 0ch4thi ev eBsre.ox hoikbliytni onM u‘sIenduima.n ARrte profo dtuhec eUdn itceoudr tes : 7.2 MAVb1uo0sr9ei5gu8imn al©A rcGAahulislvteerrsya.,l iaAnu Mstursaleiuanm .M uRseepurmo,d ucSeyddn eyc,o ur1t9e5s8y. ofP hAoutsotgrralaipahn 218
aei eood uegrhn, T2Ah7re t ,A ip rNieRlEw S S19uY4Eo1 r.k ,of PMMhooMtdAoegr rna 2p0hA.r 4t4,©1 . N2eR0we0 1p rYooTrdhkue,c e2Md2 u sJcaeounurutmae rsyy o f 1o9f 41t h 7.3 MAVb1uo0sr9ei3gu8imn al©A rcGAhaulislvteerrsya., l iaAnu stMruaslieaunm .M uRseepurmo,d ucSeyddn eyc,o ur1t9e5s8y. oPf hAoutsotgrraalipahn 219
. ares of The Museum of Modern Art ——_ Museum Archives.
5.2 MoMA torpedo, 1933- 1946, i1 n Folder 1256, Box 128, Series III 4L, 129 7.4 Aboriginal Gallery, Australian Museum, Sydney; early 1980s.
RG4 NAR Personal Projo jects, Rockefeller Archi Photograph © Australian Museum. Reproduced courtesy of
224
York, © 2004 Rockefeller Archives Center. Rceproaducede cou rtesy of Australian Museum Archives.
the Rockefeller Archives Center. 8.1 Aboriginal Au stralia gallery, Australian Museum, Sydney, 1985.
5.3 Fofr etdh e KUanbiott; ieed S(tHaotpeispi’ ),, Tahrtei s; t eaende El ie Roosevelt at the ‘In Giant Art 153 PThroatnosgpraarepnhc y© CoAlulsetcrtailoina.n RMeupsreoudmu,c edP hoctoourgtreaspyh yo f UAnuist,t ralian
22K
Museum Archives.
8.2 Aboriginal Australia gallery, Australian Museum, Sydney, 1985.
Photograph © Australian Museum, Photography Unit,
Transparency Collection. Reproduced courtesy of Australian
249
Museum Archives.
8.3 Aboriginal Australia gallery, Australian Museum, Sydney, 1985.
Photograph © Australian Museum, Photography Unit,
Transparency Collection. Reproduced courtesy of Australian
159
250
Museum Archives.
8.4 Concept Diagram, Aboriginal gallery, Australian Museum, 1982,
Australian Museum Archives, AN92/2, box 2, Aboriginal Gallery
1982 © Australian Museum Archives. Reproduced courtesy of the

257
Australian Museum Archives.
161
9.1 Indigenous Australians, gallery entrance, Australian Museum,
Sydney, 1997. Photograph © Australian Museum, Photography
Unit, Transparency Collection. Reproduced courtesy of Australian
260
Museum Archives.
185
Museum Archives.
9.3 Indigenous Australians gal Jery, Australian Museum, 1997.
Photograph © Australian M useum, Photography Unit,
Transparency Collection. Repro duced courtesy of the Australian
Museum Archives.
9.4 EAEMMxxuuuhhsssiitebbreiiauuttlmimii,ooa nnn’ A ArlMucaAguhyuuiosgsvueuetts su t.mp 1l 9a19nA96,r9 ,c6 hI,i rnvdeeSipsegr.ceo ondnoRuduec sep drR oeAfduieunsr tcrr‘eaaAldlb ioaMrcneiosgeu itrnitgaanellsg ly e ArRyuo,esf t protAahruelts i taAr ©ua sltiraanl ian 293 Rhtthhaeievps eo trhrtiaisnsg cgreolrefesa d s cifltnoaorg i lmttyshh ies cf oacbrp ootntouhskeri eddraere resa ttthineito outnpt i odopinourf el coattfrh le yc uilrrmteeaulmgraoaitvlne aadl to bitjoo aenncr dte ssin t rihettohtueuut risnsot ae nsd t o rf i tenwq couume lustdtsuesrec.au ald mCesoos bn.j sweecoHqtrouslw edenwavtsie ldryne,o, t
1 VMGSoioarnulrrcaicersenr.:tw uNyLio nrgYtauhrneiur pnM ienLmgaounr di a(YlCo olugLnnecuci)tl u.r feo.Rl eloPpwhrioontdgou gchreiasd p hdeecrlo:iu vretrLeyes oy nof oftM hoeLr eroi1ns9 ,9 8 298 mtaonprehfnoeee rdtlT re ithplhgseoeneyien eto mlwuuiyifpssa inn h rtadysbeletsygr dl ieri ctpotbmarouhliolarepegg t m gaseecai lrwcnnoi tasotnsmsftk ts m o vtuobhpiakneleeeo sifotwo tppd ewtllyedehalel eecei nevbii eneetb lasreielraaincl el tsfaydoe p uOl ebsacyouatestetptih a o loerbenmlsa’o.el olf sris n on o tufg hi mb1edty9ieoeh r9fenn 1 ttt tihmBsheteaieyw, rl im tkfbahoaweh nrnoitrd usti sthlfcoheidco rei-nuidfpflbc lit eiluc ctirstetoai.yroftl i ce nscoTag fuo h pbiapiDtjsaneehu rdrcrbt tswoirs.acuco suugv llhTtnath hiauranekr to a ,fl e ev itisxi homaoonnambmliegjaepc ee nldcsceoet feo s r
with similarly perceived affiliations.
The physical destruction of the members of the particular group was not sufficient
for these belligerents; rather, they hoped to expunge the group’s existence from the
collective memory of future generations through the systematic removal of their
cultural manifestations. The creation of ‘eternal silences’ in individual and collective
memory through the removal or destruction of cultural heritage continues to be a
powerful weapon in the occupation and subjugation of peoples.
The second trigger was my visit in late 1995 to the Royal Academy of Arts,
London for the ‘Africa: The Art of a Continent’ show. The aim of the exhibition
was to chronicle the arts of an entire continent which was emerging from ‘a longing
period of humiliation’ following decolonisation and the dismantling of the apartheid
system in South Africa.! The exhibition had been planned and executed at a time
when the grand imperial narratives of the past were being challenged by intellectual
discourses driven by peoples on the periphery. However, as I walked through the
Royal Academy’s darkened rooms I was left with a lingering sense of unease despite
its laudable aims.
The labelling of the cultural objects on display provided little detailed information

of their provenance. The historical voids surrounding the objects accentuated the
denial of the colonial past, the present-day effects of former colonial relations and
the possible future legacies of this past. In addition, a cursory glance at the exhibition

1 ue Hite ne
ie rin Introduction, in T, Phillips (ed.), Africa: The Art of a Continent (exh. cat., New York, 1995),
Preface Xiy
Preface
catalogue revealed that exhibits were the ‘property’ of numerous Europea and the British Public Records Office. In : France,
AtttnoctSoiainahhfiisomgno eatoimreed mtyneLT, no isre mhlpcw gridue iohoano,eircaenn lst uensselsa ois l o©ye,rcne tW d u eaes sip hsstf~ saaehtfae aionn eisdteroocnct p p he tnnsteutweg si gptoiioi fgnrli Ism op r noiioulfnhoievgndcg eafmeai onaegiAvs t~db p ooefcee l ifrsaw n etcitnrh a.t ot cclnehi c no ouepmacatlt tlonanhhlc Stperd airi euiontt tinercndr midintstatcietcfo uulhi stesieno er hos s o yernnhiieno s o smt pobf uoh. ae ujofeo mtta xe }srf hno es ch iaeftOdee.tet igchdna.,vwsube ir i lt l inlthyyItayaEetito eDl iotn uvib v eoeer neiea sand cfpjinnnlp i.h aeuon f id crlrtresthttteeoetaistwi o reuibp hcieurg jetetoecjagneisifhnenln chot eo c w td tht mn: anmhees t maov h uohnureue etbosttrroci rfonj enae ieiitenuotrctfttifgStxaemthio tvu1rhyg aesasraergie of ttm.syl bifwe e,oo wviiosi rbebfetr.on lslajfrTmi t agyle ‘ eohhoro icernT egrfoist t hgeifsooahsiab lgeineectr wy’iwon ri cvmn etareowaue’verrnfaero rrpdare.eborioillin 1 inj orescuayew: eeue tte deecnsisas, dtee D ts tPsi e— ce 1t iodSirohftei c mcoeanefoimsrntbs 1n h aueyeiteeJ anpi a tcri r i‘Beste D r lNltS i.o.oot cs. ierase t. styen h ,4sii an l \ t MtsDnAUAtANhIUtABatueuhenriunahnroetsrs uicsenstr citi ohtmvmiyterohtrieos UhioaanSieavurk ennnlaovrlLde slmicilaeiuisk iLyal ltUa stb;t,i,nu; en rh Nyb d daiW aL rLoer ttoiatfMitttdyeibh ArrhhhbNo ;ueriodieuAyfkra ssa n ss ma ttrstrheetiS SN,ariSehyittrou:nG et aen a annia dlrcmwttcstU Ncaileoeo Ml e fnn a aueusu eAdendn,Awpdrot LA es LSr fec uirdi occhdsAbtoM bAuhoAi tYhrrrprirtfivu rocatNoaostvhearh,rrs s rael slk iAtyyesti;i;avirL ;Sfa iteuIncWif; msoahconba m taof;iinnlrldthf n tovhaue a ieadfVee hrdsngl iMsyL esdemcM tDi douCnuthbu aenoolsestaarginrsiu henntaebit esaedehdrra ruU en atHy;ue nrU m a AimiLnAN ermIvi lfiMsadecnebmif;tenuoshrrbwa aefdotirasis f driarvrid ertAt ysestoYhyMruA ;suyke;cotNtr o; m uijrac dRokmt htéTleAenoh ieiAihlf;suervboV nme dsUo;r einnte tna uSscRsIa trrrir;ytonh yRtaavi coedct,oAinle rceI eknrydoirita nret;ea aNsnahM nffnlynei -Wieaeo CtLtbtlworleyiciiLlM imSoln bhMoibebtiautdreobnrlrauYbltrlarasrat rioisinelralerabroeoA o r yyr erktaw yuir na;uhe;rcLCL ma sai eamihion ne nqNWCbbiu dasddreruiven n ao anaeelcfwdnLrtr , saiaL Ad yiryn lNori r,bCe dcib ancY re,P hreth oaan aioao uirrrltrfSvafrvcr iki SeyeryyIhseba ysrc .dnM.Sirsl;hd; tn vaouP; i n eeerauu -vrIeIisynbHWtten- yne;d;hatil s h s. e h vs;i , ee -c
the disinte=: gration of e mpipirree:s or cess8 ation of occupation. Yet why did Library; Columbia University libraries; Harvard University Art Museums; and the
NOT oO
cqhuaepstteiroC Cn: U,To f I tdthuaerikrei ngwu op rdkte,h:c eo lLcoahnwai lsl aeanntdgi eo nth leaiCind uitldl htoeu rwanll ateHb ey rTiWI t aTer nogttetei,é , eatVnhO.d ] cOeI nI tI Ku1 erMe fWeoi veIimnn entathed - dc(r op1ene9sfnl8suii9lcn tg) t .i msiaTtthuee- RJouof deI etrh iaecm Phh M ilaeMpcx,ult ersJeaeimymue lmySM pueAsgcrerhcautht imevf;aeu nsld. B taPor ertJyea rn CWrBha iirgta,ze i erPo,hf i ltPlhhieip l ACuGlsoatrrrakdleoi,n ,an C olDMieunss ePGuarmrid;ffo ien R, oasnLedym nadArapy h rKoSedtlilatyc,ek
ations,8, vveervr y liltitttllee wow rk has bee Vlavogelakis of the South Australian Museum; Lindy Allen, Melanie Raberts, Robert
McWilliams and Gary Foley of Museum Victoria; Anthony Burton formerly of the
Victoria and Albert Museum; Neil Brodie, MacDonald Institute for Archaeological
6 Research, University of Cambridge; Anita Herle and Robin Boast of the Cambridge
LI avuitsiet etd paadccu hrti n Reg mss e1a99r9c;h tCheen trGel obaflo t II nternational L; aw, Univ: er s; tantial resour. ces of the University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology; Stephanie Makseyn-Kelley
ces, which
which I visited File epi W School, School eee of the National Museum of the American Indian; Mary Downs of the US National
ew York University
-0005 «
d Park Service; Patrick Boylan, City University, London; Torben Lundbaek of the
National Museum of Denmark; and Roger O’Keefe, Faculty of Law, University of
Cambridge who have been most generous with their time.
The progress, depth and completion of this book would not have been possi-
ble without the determination, patience and attention to detail of Ben Boer and
Terry Carney of the Faculty of Law, University of Sydney; Patrick O’Keefe, Aus-
Li4br0arrya ry of of Australia, Rockefeller Arrceh i tralian National University; Russel Barsh, Institute of Society and Law, New York
University; Terence Smith, Department of History of Art and Architecture, Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh; and Mary Mackay, Department of Art History and Theory,
University of Sydney. The guidance and advice of James Crawford, Faculty of Law,

University of Cambridge throughout many years is deeply appreciated.
Special thanks to my sister, Katarina Vrdoljak, whose unstinting support has
guaranteed the inclusion of images to accompany my words; Annie Parkinson,

whose proofreading skills came when they were most needed; and my editor, Simon
Whitmore, who patiently guided the book to completion.
Preface
One of the most enduring pleasures of this work has been the ho, TABLE OF CASES
generosity of family and friends in various corners of the globe, especial] om ly ay
t e
Kramar, Levak, Lingaard-Hansen, Pahovié, Rosivceviecy, Stronge and Vr del Jak fa Ute
and Teresita Heffernan and her fellow Sisters. Above all, I wish to acky OWledg, i Itgy
unfailing physical and emotional support of my parents and sisters wh
OS Sake i
fuelled and ensured the realisation of this long-held goal.
AArtntHSeoiu rgpnMhrea eyg-mCnGeoue usnrseCtero naul orf t F oDofue ofnNn demDawaet rinkomZn;ea arlk(Ca,Aan srde nC ava.mI sIaeO grntNNiaooz.e .5a1[7n01/ 7918/I92n16]s9t 76i t63u t(eAMl)(l aN rvoE.c vRheT hme4b1 39e27Mr 0i )n(,iQ 1sB9t)26r;46y1 ) ;o[ f1 T9Eh8d4eu] c aEtaAisCotn e,r 1 n
(HL), 245, 270
AAttttoorrnneeyy--GGeenneerraall vv.. TTrhues teTersu stees of the British Museum [2005] EWHR 1089 (Ch) 12,
54, 69, 73, 80, 81, 95, 119-20, 140, 204205525 253-54, 269-73, 290
Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus Vv.
Goldberg & Feldman Fine Arts, Inc., 917 F 2d 278 (7th Cir. 1990), 246
Belgian claims to the Triptych of Sait Ildephonse and the Treasure of the Order of the
4
| Golden Fleece, Report of the Committee of Three Furists, Paris, Reparation
;
Commission, 25 October 1921, Annex No.1141, 82
Bonnichsen v. US Department of the Army, 969 F Supp. 628 @eOr99m)
(preliminary ruling); 217 F Supp. 2d 1116 (. Or. 2002); affd 357 F 3d 962
(9th Cir. 2004)2,79
Bumper Development Corporation v. Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1991] 1
WLR 1362, [1991] 4 All ER 638 (CA), 245
Cayuga Indians (Great Britain v. United States), RIAA vol.4, p.173 (1926), 49

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 US ( Pet.) 1 (1831), 106
Crow v. Gullett, 541 F Supp. 785 (DSCD 1982); affd 706 F 2d 856 (8th Cir.
1983), 276
Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997) 79 DLR (4th) 185 (BSSC, 1991); varied
104 DLR (4th) 470 (BCCA, 1993); app. upheld 153 DLR (4th) 193 (SCC,
1997), 295
DeWeerth v. Baldinger, 658 F Supp. 688 (SDNY, 1987); reversed 836 F 2d 103
(2nd Cir. 1987); reversed 38 F 3d 1266 (2nd Cir. 1994), 143
Factory at Chorzow, Merits, (1928) PCIf, ser.A, No.17, p.47, 215
Foster v. Mountford (1976) 29 CLR 233, 14 ALR 71, 270
Idrogo v. United States Army, 18 F Supp. 2d 25 (DDC 1998), 279
Island of Palmas (US v. Netherlands), RIAA, vol.2, p.831 (1949), 49
Kartinyeri v. Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 286
Kitok v. Sweden, No.197/1985, UN Doc.A/43/40, p.221 (1988), 178