International Law

475 Pages·2014·63.584 MB·English

by  Malcolm Evans

INTERNATIONAL
LAW
Fourth Edition
EDITED BY
MALCOLM D EVANS
Professor of Public International Law, University of Bristol
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OUTLINE CONTENTS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of INTERNATIONAL LAW
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Editorial material and arrangement Malcolm D Evans 2014 A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3
Individual chapters—the several contributors 2014
Stephen C Neff
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First edition 2003 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 29
Second edition 2006
Martti Koskenniemi
Third edition 2010
Impression: 2
A VIEW OF DELFT: SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THINKING
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW 53
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted lain Scobbie
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL
You must not circulate this work in any other form LEGAL OBLIGATION
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v1.0
THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 91
(http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/open-government-licence.htm)
Hugh Thirlway
Crown Copyright material reproduced with the permission of the
Controller, HMSO (under the terms of the Click Use licence)
SOFT LAW IN INTERNATIONAL LAW-MAKING 118
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America Alan Boyle
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ‘RELATIVE NORMATIVITY’ 137
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013952621 Dinah Shelton
ISBN 978-0-19-965467~3
Printed in Great Britain by THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 166
Ashford Colour Press Ltd
Malgosia Fitzmaurice
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
LEGAL ORDER
STATEHOOD, SELE-DETERMINATION, AND RECOGNITION 201
Matthew Craven
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 248
Dapo Akande
vi OUTLINE CONTENTS OUTLINE CONTENTS vii

PART VIL THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
10 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM 280
Robert McCorquodale
22 THE LAW OF THE SEA 651
Malcolm D Evans

PART IV THE SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNTY
23 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 688
Catherine Redgwell
11 JURISDICTION 309
Christopher Staker
24 INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT LAW 727
Surya P Subedi
12 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE
OF JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 336
752
Hazel Fox 25 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW
Robert Cryer
13 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND
783
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 379 26 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
Sir Nigel Rodley
Chanaka Wickremasinghe
14 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND 27 THE LAW OF ARMED CONELICT (INTERNATIONAL
821
NATIONAL LAW 412 HUMANITARIAN LAW)
David Turns
Eileen Denza

PART V RESPONSIBILITY
15 THE CHARACTER AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL
RESPONSIBILITY 443
James Crawford and Simon Olleson
16 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON
477
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Phoebe Okowa
17 THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT 509
Spencer Zifcak

PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF
INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS
18 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 537
Nigel D White and Ademola Abass
19 THE MEANS OF DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 363
John Merrills
20 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE 589
Hugh Thirlway
21 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER 618
Christine Gray
CONTENTS
Preface to the Fourth Edition XXV
From the Editor’s Introduction to the First Edition XXvi
New to this Edition xxvii
Notes on Contributors XXvili
Abbreviations xxxiii
Table of International Instruments and Other Documents XXXxiX
Table of Domestic Instruments by Country liii
Table of International Cases Wi
Table of Domestic Cases by Country Ixvii

PART I THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF
INTERNATIONAL LAW
1 A SHORT HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3
Stephen C Neff
Summary 3
I Introduction 3
Il Ancient Worlds 4
UI The Middle Ages: The Natural Law Era °
A. The Universalist Outlook: Medieval Natural Law 6
B_ The Pluralist Outlook: The Italian City-states 6
C Developments in State Practice 7
IV The Classical Age (1600-1815) 8
A Grotius and Hobbes 9
B_ The Laws of Nature and Nations in Action 11
V The Nineteenth Century (1815-1919) 12
A “The Public Law and System of Europe’ 12
B_ The Positivist Revolution 13
C Dissident Perspectives 16
D._ The Achievements of the Nineteenth Century 17
VI The Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries (1919- ) 19
A. The Inter-war Period 19
B After 1945 21
VII Conclusion 24
References 24
Further Reading 27
ms
x CONTENTS CONTENTS xi
2 WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR? 29 II Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 94
Martti Koskenniemi A. Treaties and Conventions in Force 95
Summary 29 B Custom 97
I The Paradox of Objectives C The General Principles of Law 104
re ing Interests? 29 D Subsidiary Sources: Judicial Decisions and Teachings 105
onverging Interests?
The Si Bt 6 31 III The Relationships Between the Sources of International Law 107
IIT The Significance of Statehood 33 A Relationship Between Treaty and Custom 107
IV Into Pragmatism? 35 B_ The Hierarchy of Sources 109
V A Tradition of Anti-formalism 39 IV Is the Enumeration of Article 38 Exhaustive? Possible New or
VI Instrumentalism, Formalism, and the Production of an International Additional Sources 110
Political Community 2 A How Can New Sources Come into Existence? 110
VII Beyond Instrumentalism and Formalism Ad B Some Additiiti onal Sources or Quasi-i-s ources That Have Been Suggested 111
VII Between Hegemony and Fragmentation: A Mini-history 45 V Conclusioi n 115
. 116
IX Legal Formalism and International Justice 47 References
References 49 Further Readini g 117
5 3 , - 118
3 A VIEW OF DELFT: SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THINKING ‘lan Boyle IN INTERNATIONAL Layee
ABOUT INTERNATIONAL LAW 53 oye 118
Summary
Iain Scobbie
53 I The Significance of Soft Law 118
Summary
I The Perils of Philosophy 54 II What is Soft Law? 119
Il The Prologue—The View from Delphi 55 IH Treaties or Soft Law? 121
III Law, Politics, and Instrumentalism 58 IV Soft Law as Part of the Multilateral Treaty-making Process 123
IV The View from Delft 61 V Treaties as Soft Law 126
V But What is a Theory? 63 VI Soft Law General Principles 128
VI Provenance and Meaning 64 VII Soft Law and Customary Law 130
VII Liberal Democracy v Marxism-Leninism—Poles Apart? 67 VIII Conclusions 133
A. The New Haven School 68 References 134
B Soviet Theory 71 Further Reading 135
C New Haven and Soviet Approaches Compared 74
VIII Beyond the State, its Interests, and Instrumentalism 76 6 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ‘RELATIVE NORMATIVITY’ 137
79 Dinah Shelton
IX A View of Delft
137
80 Summary
References
Further Reading 87 I Introduction: The Concept of Relative Normativity 137
II Peremptory Norms 142
A. Theoretical Approaches 142
PART II THE STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL B Textual References 143
LEGAL OBLIGATION C International Jurisprudence 145
D National Jurisprudence 149
4 THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 91 III Hierarchy Among Conflicting Norms and Procedures 152
A Hierarchy Within a Single Treaty 153
Hugh Thirlway
Summary 9] B_ Hierarchy Among Treaties Governing the Same Topic 155
C Hierarchy Among Regimes 156
I Introduction: What are Sources of Law? 9]
xiii
xii CONTENTS CONTENTS
IV ‘Soft Law’ 159
PART III THE SUBJECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
V Conclusion 163
LEGAL ORDER
References 164
Further Reading 165
8 STATEHOOD, SELF-DETERMINATION, AND RECOGNITION 201
Matthew Craven
7 THE PRACTICAL WORKING OF THE LAW OF TREATIES 166
Malgosia Fitzmaurice Summary 201
Summary 166 Introduction 201
nl Introduction 166 II History 206
I Basic Concepts and Structures 166 Ill Defining the State 214
— 218
A What is a Treaty? 166 A Population
219
B_ The Vienna Conventions 169 B Territory
221
C Independent Government
III The Anatomy of a Treaty 170
A The Making of Treaties 170 IV Self-determination 226
B_ Authority to Conclude Treaties 170 Democracy and Human Rights 232
C Expression of Consent to be Bound 171 VI Statehood and Recognition 236
D Invalidity of Treaties 174 241
Vil Conclusion
E Amendment and Modification 175
F Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties 176 References 243
IV The Scope of Legal Obligations 176 Further Reading 247
A. The Principle Pacta Sunt Servanda 176
248
B_ Treaties and Third States 177 9 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Dapo Akande
V General Principles of Interpretation 178
248
178 Summary
General Issues
>o Practice 179 Introduction 248
Travaux Préparatoires 181 A. History and Role of International Organizations 248
The Object and Purpose of a Treaty 182 B Definition, Distinctions, and Differences 249
o
m The Principle of Effectiveness 182 C_ Is there a Common Law of International Organizations? 251
m The Dynamic (Evolutive) Interpretation of Treaties and the European II Legal Personality 251
Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 183 A. Personality in International Law 251
G Plurilingual Treaties 183 B Objective Legal Personality and Relations with Non-member States 254
184 255
VI Reservations to Treaties C Personality in Domestic Law
184
A. The Genocide Convention Case 186 Ill Interpretation of Constituent Instruments 256
B_ The Regime of the 1969 Vienna Convention 187 A Who is Empowered to Interpret? 257
C Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties 188 B What are the Relevant Principles of Interpretation to be Applied? 258
D The Problem of Reservations to Human Rights Treaties 260
191 IV Powers of International Organizations
E Interpretative Declarations 260
191 A Implied Powers
VIL Problems Concerning the Grounds for Termination 261
191 B Decision-making Powers
A Material Breach C. Ultra Vires Decisions of International Organizations 262
193
B_ Supervening Impossibility of Performance
194 Responsibility of International Organizations 265
C Fundamental Change of Circumstances
VI Privileges and Immunities 268
VIII Conclusion 195
A. Sources of Privileges and Immunities 268
References 195 B Scope of Privileges and Immunities 269
Further Reading 196
VI The UN System 272
A. The Structure of the UN 273
B_ Principal Organs of the UN 274
CONTENTS XV
CONTENTS
VII Conclusion 276 III The Fundamental Principle Governing Enforcement Jurisdiction 331
References 277 IV Conclusion 333
Further Reading 279 References 333
Further Reading 335
10 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INTERNATIONAL
LEGAL SYSTEM 280 12 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND RESTRAINTS ON THE EXERCISE
Robert McCorquodale OF JURISDICTION BY NATIONAL COURTS OF STATES 336
Summary 280 Hazel Fox
I Introduction 280 Summary 336
A. The Individual 281 I Overview 336
B_ Individuals in the International Legal System 281 A Introduction 336
II International Rights and Responsibilities 284 B State Immunity, Act of State, and Non-justiciability as
338
A. Individual Rights 284 Avoidance Techniques
B Individual Responsibility 286 II State Immunity 339
339
II AI nteBrrniangtiinogn alI ntCelrnaaitmiso nal Claims 228888 Se DOreivgeilnso pmofe ntthe oPfl etah e ofC oStmatme onIm muLnawi tyR elating to State Immunity 339
A Development in Civil Courts and the USA 341
B International Human Rights Law 290
DC IInmtmeurnniattiioensa l Economic Law 229914 n TPhree seEnlte mDeanyt s SoCuorncsetsi tuoft itnhge Ithnet erPnleaat ioonf alSt atLea wI momf uSntiattey Immunity 3344]4
IV Creation, Development, and Enforcement of International Law 294 Q Definition of the Foreign State for the Purpose of State Immunity 335419
Exceptions to Adjudication Jurisdiction
A Right of Self-determination 295
358
H Immunity from Enforcement
B Indigenous Peoples 296
III The Other Two Avoidance Techniques 365
C Non-governmental Organizations 296
365
D Jurists 299 A Act of State
366
B Non-justiciability
V_ Conclusions 300
IV Comparison and Evaluation of the Three Avoidance Techniques 370
References 302
V_ The Arguments For and Against the Use of Avoidance Techniques 370
Further Reading 305
VI Challenges to Immunity and Judicial Restraint 37)
VII The Exclusionary Procedural Nature of the Plea of State Immunity 373
PART IV THE SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNTY VIII Conclusion 376
376
References
11 JURISDICTION 309 377
Further Reading
Christopher Staker
Summary 309
13 IMMUNITIES ENJOYED BY OFFICIALS OF STATES AND
I Introduction 309 379
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
A. The Meaning of Jurisdiction’ 309 Chanaka Wickremasinghe
B_ The Significance of the Principles of Jurisdiction 310
Summary 379
C The Doctrinal Analysis of Jurisdiction 311
379
I Introduction
II Prescriptive Jurisdiction 313
II Diplomatic Relations 383
A. The Territorial Principle 316
B_ The National Principle 318 A. The Scheme of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 383
386
C. The Protective Principle 321 B Jurisdictional Immunities
387
D The Universal Principle 322 C Remedies in Cases of Abuse
E_ Treaty-based Extensions of Jurisdiction 323 II] Consular Relations 388
F Controversial Bases of Prescriptive Jurisdiction 326 IV Special Missions 389
G Inadequacies of the Traditional Approach 328
am oa, s,
xvi CONTENTS CONTENTS Xvii
Holders of High-ranking Offices, such as Heads of State, Heads of
Government, and Ministers for Foreign Affairs 392 PART V RESPONSIBILITY
A Heads of State 392
B Heads of Government and Ministers for Foreign Affairs 394 15 THE CHARACTER AND FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL
443
VI The Immunities of Other State Officials 396 RESPONSIBILITY
James Crawford and Simon Olleson
VII Officials of International Organizations 399
Summary 443
Vill The Scope of Immunities for Serious Crimes under International
The Scope of International Responsibility: Introduction and Overview 443
Law—Immunity and Impunity Distinguished 401
A Immunities Ratione Personae 402 II State Responsibility: Issues of Classification and Characterization 447
B_ Immunities Ratione Materiae 403 A. Responsibility under International or National Law? 448
C Immunities Before International Criminal Courts 405 B_ Typology of State Responsibility 449
IX Conclusion 408 I] The Elements of State Responsibility 452
A Attribution of Conduct 453
References 409
B_ Breach of an International Obligation 460
Further Reading 410 C Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness: Defences or Excuses for
Breaches of International Law 464
14 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL AND IV The Content of International Responsibility 467
412
NATIONAL LAW
Invocation of Responsibility: Responses by the Injured State and
Eileen Denza
Other States 471
Summary 412
VI Further Development of the Law of International Responsibility 474
Introduction 412
References 474
II The Approach of International Courts and Tribunals 413
A Where National Law Causes Breach of International Law 413 Further Reading 475
B_ International Law Looks Mainly to the Result 416 Websites 476
il The Approach of National Parliaments and National Courts 417
16 ISSUES OF ADMISSIBILITY AND THE LAW ON
IV The Spectrum of Constitutional Rules 418 477
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
A The Netherlands 419
Phoebe Okowa
B Germany 419
C France 420 Summary 477
D Russia 421 Introduction 477
E The USA 422 II Legal Interest as a Pre-requisite to Admissibility of Claims 478
F The UK 424 A. Rationale of International Law Rules on Locus Standi 479
Some Problems Which Arise in National Courts 426 B Modalities of Establishing Legal Interest 480
A Does a Rule of Customary International Law Prevail Over Conflicting Iil ‘The Bases of Diplomatic Protection 481
National Law? 426 A Nationality as the Basis of Legal Interest in Indirect Claims 481
B What is the Meaning of an International Law Rule in the Context of B_ Establishing Nationality for Purposes of Diplomatic Protection 484
Domestic Law? 427 C_ The Nationality of Corporations 487
Is the International Rule Directly Applicable and Directly Effective? 428 D Applying the Nationality Rule 491
oyo Does a Treaty Prevail Over Inconsistent National Law? 430 IV Admissibility in Cases Concerning Obligations Owed to a Plurality
M Can a Treaty Prevail Over a National Constitutional Norm? 431
m of States 494
M Should the Executive Direct or Guide the National Court? 432.
7A Should a National Court Apply a Foreign Law which Conflicts with A Introduction 494
Q B Treaty Instruments Protecting Collective Interests 496
International Law? 434
C Litigation in the Public Interest and the Enforcement of Erga Omnes
H_ Are there Questions of International Law which National Courts should
Obligations Stricto Sensu 497
Decline to Answer? 435
Admissibility of Claims and the Rule on Exhaustion of
VI Conclusion: Elements of a Happy Relationship 437
Local Remedies 500
References 438
A. Introduction 500
Further Reading 440 B The Content of the Rule 500
XVili CONTENTS CONTENTS xix
C The Application of the Rule in the Context of Mixed Claims 501 C Limitations upon Countermeasures and other Non-forcible Measures
D Rule of Substance or Procedure 503 taken by States 545
E_ Which View Represents the Law? 504 D Countermeasures and Third States 547
F The Exclusion of the Local Remedies Rule 505 III Economic Coercion 550
VI Conclusion 505 IV Sanctions 552
References 506 A. Definition of Sanctions 552
Further Reading 508 B_ Limitations upon Sanctions 556
V_ Conclusion 559
17 THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT 509 References 560
Spencer Zifcak
Further Reading 562
Summary 509
I Introduction 509 19 THE MEANS OE DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 563
John Merrills
1] Humanitarian Intervention in International Law 510
A Intervention with Security Council Authorization 512 Summary 563
B_ Intervention without Security Council Authorization 513 I Introduction 563
III The Birth of the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ 515 II Diplomatic Methods 564
IV The 2005 World Summit 517 A Negotiation 564
566
A_ Towards the 2005 World Summit 517 B Mediation
B The World Summit Resolution 519 C Inquiry 568
569
V_ Post World Summit Recognition of the Doctrine 520 D Conciliation
HI Legal Methods 571
VI The Secretary-General’s Elaboration of the Responsibility
A Arbitration 571
to Protect 521
573
B. The International Court of Justice
VII R2P in Libya and Syria 523 C Other Courts and Tribunals 574
A Libya 523 D The Place of Legal Methods 576
B_ Syria 524
IV International Organizations and Dispute Settlement 578
VHI_ Pillar 3 Intervention: Key Principles 527 A Regional Organizations 578
IX The Responsibility to Protect as International Law 528 B The United Nations 579
A State Practice 529 C_ The Charter System in Practice 580
B_ Opinio Juris 529 D The Value and Limitations of Organizations 582
C Security Council Practice 530 V_ Conclusion 584

References 531
References 584
Further Reading 533
Further Reading 587
589
20 THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
PART VI RESPONDING TO BREACHES OF
Hugh Thirlway
INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS
Summary 589
18 COUNTERMEASURES AND SANCTIONS 537 I Introduction 589
Nigel D White and Ademola Abass II History 590
Summary 537 UI Structure and Composition 591
I Introduction: Self-help in International Law 537 IV Procedure 593
II Countermeasures 539 V_ The Court's Jurisdiction 595
A. Definition of Countermeasures 539 A Jurisdiction: Structural Limitations 595
B_ Reprisals and Retorsion 543 B Jurisdiction in Particular Cases 597
CONTENTS xxi
CONTENTS
C Jurisdiction and its Exercise 600 D Peacekeeping in Africa 642
D_ Verification of Jurisdiction and Admissibility: Preliminary Objections 601 E Peacekeeping After the Brahimi Report 643
VU Regional Action Under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter 643
VI Other Incidental Proceedings 603
A. Requests for the Indication of Provisional Measures 603 A A Greater Role for Regional Organizations 644
B Parties: Joinder of Cases; Intervention by Third States 605 B Controversy as to the Interpretation of Chapter VIII 644
C Interpretation and Revision of Judgments 607 C Regional Peacekeeping After the Cold War 645
VIN Conclusion 646
VII Effect of the Decisions of the Court 608
References 646
VOI Advisory Proceedings 610
Further Reading 647
IX The Court Past and Present: An Assessment 613
Websites 648
Citation of ICJ Cases 616
References 616

Further Reading 616 PART VII THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
Websites 617
22 THE LAW OF THE SEA 651
21 THE USE OF FORCE AND THE INTERNATIONAL Malcolm D Evans
LEGAL ORDER 618 Summary 651
Christine Gray
I Introduction 651
Summary 618
II Constructing Baselines 654
Introduction 618 A Introduction: The Normal Rule 654
A The UN Charter Scheme 619 B_ Straight Baselines 655
I The Prohibition of the Use of Force in Article 2(4) UN Charter 620 C Bays 655
A. The Use of Force in ‘International Relations’ 620 D Archipelagoes 656
B The Meaning of “Threat or Use of Force’ 62] Ill The Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, and Contiguous Zone 657
C_ The Use of Force ‘Against the Territorial Integrity and Political
A Introduction 657
Independence of Any State, or in Any Other Manner Inconsistent with B_ Jurisdiction of the Coastal State 658
the Purposes of the United Nations’ 622 C Navigation in the Territorial Sea 660
D Humanitarian Intervention and Responsibility to Protect 623
IV The High Seas 664
I] Intervention, Civil Wars, and Invitation 626 A. The Freedoms of the Seas 664
IV Self-defence 627 B The Exceptions to Flag-State Jurisdiction 665
The Scope of Self-defence: Necessity and Proportionality 628 C Conclusion 670

S The Meaning of ‘Armed Attack’ 628 V_ Resource Jurisdiction 670
The Use of Force in Protection of Nationals 629 A The Continental Shelf 670
UA Anticipatory or Pre-emptive Self-defence 630 B_ The Exclusive Fishing Zone 672
The Impact of the Terrorist Attacks of 9/11 on the Law of Self-defence 631 C. The Exclusive Economic Zone 673
t A ‘Bush Doctrine’ of Pre-emptive Self-defence? 633 D The Deep Seabed 675
a Collective Self-defence 634 VI Delimitation of Maritime Zones between Opposite or
T The Role of the Security Council 635
Adjacent States 676
The Use of Force Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter 636 A Equidistance or Equitable Principles? 676
A Measures Under Article 41 637 B Factors Affecting Delimitation 678
B_ The Use of Force Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter 637
VII Fisheries 680
C Implied or Revived Authorization of Force? 638
A. The Basic Scheme of Regulation 689
VI UN Peacekeeping 640
B Managing Fisheries 68]
A The Inception of Peacekeeping 640
VHI Conclusion 683
B Peacekeeping After the End of the Cold War 641
References 684
C Challenges to Peacekeeping: Yugoslavia and Somalia 1991-5 642
Further Reading 686