International Human Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service and Individual Duties to Disobey Manifestly Illegal Orders PDF
Preview International Human Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service and Individual Duties to Disobey Manifestly Illegal Orders
T a k e m u r a Hitomi Takemura 1 International Human Right toIn to Conscientious Objection Mte ilitrna at ry Siona to Military Service and ervl H iceum aa nn Individual Duties to Disobey d R Inig dh ividt to u C Manifestly Illegal Orders ao l Dns utcie ien s ttio ou Disos Ob bje ec yt Mio n a n if e s t ly Ille g a l O 1 23 r d e r s International Human Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service and Individual Duties to Disobey Manifestly Illegal Orders Hitomi Takemura International Human Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service and Individual Duties to Disobey Manifestly Illegal Orders 123 Dr.HitomiTakemura [email protected] ISBN978-3-540-70526-0 e-ISBN978-3-540-70527-7 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008935625 (cid:2)c 2009Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg Thisworkissubjecttocopyright. 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Coverdesign:WMXDesignGmbH,Heidelberg,Germany Printedonacid-freepaper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Preface Thetaskofthisstudyliesinclarifyingtheeffortsofcontemporarypublicinterna- tionallaw,acrossseveralcategories,inrelationtotherightsanddutiesofindividuals totheinternationalcommunity.Individualcriminalaccountabilityisaninteresting developmentof the international community, challenging a traditional framework of public international law. At the same time, the argument whether individuals maystandupandtakeactionagainsttheirowncountryonthebasisofinternational obligationsandinternationalhumanrightsisalsoastimulatingtopicforpublicinter- national law. It necessitates interdisciplinary research within public international law. Thereforethisstudywilltacklethisambitioustask,thoughnotexhaustively.Both internationalcriminaljusticeandtherighttoconscientiousobjectionininternational humanrightslawaredevelopingnotions.Aspirationstocreateaworldofpeaceand stabilitymaycontributetothefurtherdevelopmentofthesetwonotions.Theimpor- tancegiventotheindividualwithintheinternationalcommunityisattheheartofthis study.Individualsshouldnotsit on the sidelines,shielded bytheir States; instead, theyneedtotakeinternationallawseriouslyinthetwenty-firstcentury,when,like it or not, the fearfully ambiguous word ‘globalisation’ is the word for our times (Annan 2000, pp. 9–17). The right to conscientious objection under international lawmaysometimesserveasameansofadvancingpeaceanddisarmament.Inthis connection,thedutyofindividualstocontributetointernationalpeaceandsecurity willbediscussedbymeansofexamininginternationalcriminallaw,specificallythe issueofthedefenceofsuperiororders. Therisingnumberofconscientiousobjectorsmaybeconsidereddomesticallyas eitheraproblematicoranilluminatingphenomenonbymanysocieties.Thisstudy aims to provide views to support the latter argument. In doing so, the issues are studiedthroughthelensofpublicinternationallaw,especiallyinternationalhuman rightslawandinternationalcriminallaw.Studiesofinternationalhumanrightslaw ontheissue ofconscientiousobjectionandinternationalcriminallawonthe issue of the defence of superior orders have guided this study in its ‘rights and duties’ approach. v vi Preface Itcanbelogicallyclaimedthatifindividualshavethedutytodisobeymanifestly illegalordersunderinternationalcriminallaw,thentheydonotneedtoclaimtheir rightstodisobeymanifestlyillegalordersunderpublicinternationallaw.However, therightanddutytodisobeymanifestlyillegalordersunderpublicinternationallaw maynotnecessarilybea caseof‘either-or’,astherightsanddutiesofindividuals under public internationallaw are often non-self-executingin the nationaldimen- sion. Therefore the right and the duty of individuals to disobey manifestly illegal ordersshouldsupplementeachothertostrengthentheirnormativeness. In order to clarify the rights and the duties of individuals, the relationship between the defence of superior orders and the right to conscientious objection is discussed in Chap. 1, followed by a brief background of the phenomenon of conscientiousobjection. Chapters2–4 deal with the aspect of the rightto disobey manifestly unlawfulorders, though the argumentis not confined to selective con- scientious objectors, who only object to participating in unlawfulwars and/or the use of weapons.Rather, Chaps.2–4providea generalview of the rightto consci- entiousobjectionin internationallaw, becauseits status underinternationallaw is bynomeanscleareventoday.Chapter5looksatconscientiousobjectorsasasylum seekersfromtheviewpointofinternationalrefugeelaw.Asopposedtotherightsof individuals,Chap.6focusesonthedutyofindividualstodisobeymanifestlyillegal orders.Therestrictionsonthedefenceofsuperiorordersandseveralotherhumani- tariannormsimposedonindividualsarestudiedinviewoftherighttoconscientious objection,discussedinChaps.2–4. Japan,2008 HitomiTakemura References AnnanKA(2000)MillenniumReport:WethePeoples:TheRoleoftheUnitedNationsinthe21st Century.UnitedNations,NewYork Acknowledgments Over the years, I have been assisted by a number of people in accomplishing my doctoralstudyabroad. First and foremost, I thank my supervisor Professor William A. Schabas and theYoshidaScholarshipFoundationfortheirinvaluablesupport.ProfessorSchabas alwaysshareshisenthusiasmforstudiesininternationalcriminallawwithstudents. His wealth of knowledgeand sophistication have inspired my study. The Yoshida ScholarshipFoundationhas providedme with generousassistance throughoutmy studiesinGalway,Ireland.Withouttheirfinancialandemotionalsupport,mystudy wouldneverhavebeenachieved. I thank my thesis examiners, Dr. Vinodh Jaichand and Professor Kevin Boyle ofEssexUniversity,fortheircommentsandsupports.TheIrishCentreforHuman Rights of National University of Ireland, Galway, provided students with an out- standing environmentsurrounded by friendly staff and colleagues. I thank all the Centre’sstaffandcolleagueswhosharedacademicinterestsininternationalcriminal lawandhumanrights. IthankmysupervisorsinJapan,ProfessorTetsuoSatoofHitotsubashiUniversity and Professor Sonoko Nishitateno of Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Their encouragementhaskeptmemotivatedandhasguidedmetowardsacademics. Many people have provided English language editing assistance from time to time.RoisinBurkeandJenniferSchuetze-Reymannwerealwaysofgreathelp. My life in Galway would hardly have been so comfortable and joyful without suchaniceflatmate,ChristinaCollinsandherfriendJohnMaher.Mythanksespe- cially go to friends who visited me in Galway from abroad and shared Guinness tocheermeup.AndleebChaudhryhasbeenararefriend.Isincerelythankeveryone IencounteredinGalwayfromthebottomofmyheart. Lastbutnotleast,I thankmyparents,NobushigeandMasa Takemurafortheir love and kindness. My sister, Kanae, and my now-deceased grandmothers, Kazu TakemuraandTsuneIwano,haveofferedmentalsustenance. vii Contents 1 Introduction................................................... 1 1.1 RighttoConscientiousObjectionandDutytoDisobey ........... 1 1.2 RoadtoPeace:ConscientiousObjectionasaMeansofAchieving Peace..................................................... 4 1.3 CrisisofConscription:DeclineoftheAuthorityofStates ......... 8 1.4 VolunteerSoldiersandConscientiousObjection................. 9 1.5 AbsoluteConscientiousObjectionandSelectiveConscientious Objection ................................................. 10 1.6 ConscientiousObjectionandCivilDisobedience ................ 12 1.6.1 GeneralDistinction .................................. 12 1.6.2 LegalPhilosophers’View ............................. 13 1.6.3 ObjectionstoConscientiousObjection .................. 13 1.7 ConcludingRemarks........................................ 14 References..................................................... 15 2 RighttoConscientiousObjectionintheUnitedNationsHuman RightsLaw.................................................... 19 2.1 UnitedNationsHumanRightsNorms.......................... 20 2.1.1 ActivitiesBefore1970................................ 21 2.1.2 TravauxPre´paratoiresoftheInternationalCovenant onCivilandPoliticalRights ........................... 22 2.1.3 NGOInitiativesfromtheLate60s ...................... 29 2.1.4 DiscussionBeforetheThirdCommittee oftheGeneralAssemblyin1970 ....................... 30 2.1.5 Resolution11B(XXVII)of1971bytheCommission onHumanRights .................................... 33 2.1.6 TheSecretary-General’sActivitiesFollowing Resolution11B(XXVII)of1971 ...................... 38 2.1.7 GeneralAssemblyResolution33/165of1978 ............ 40 2.1.8 Report on Conscientious Objection Prepared bytheSub-Commissionof1984........................ 42 ix x Contents 2.1.9 Draft Resolution of 1985 by the Commission onHumanRights .................................... 45 2.1.10 Resolution1987/46bytheCommissiononHumanRights.. 48 2.1.11 Resolution1989/59bytheCommissiononHumanRights.. 50 2.1.12 ConventionontheRightsoftheChildof1989............ 51 2.1.13 ReportbySpecialRapporteurof1992................... 55 2.1.14 Resolution1993/84bytheCommissiononHumanRights.. 55 2.1.15 GeneralCommentbytheHumanRightsCommittee of1993............................................. 56 2.1.16 ResolutionsFollowingResolution1993/84 oftheCommissiononHumanRights ................... 61 2.1.17 StudyoftheIssueoftheAdministrationofJustice ThroughMilitaryTribunalsof2005..................... 66 2.2 EnforcementMechanism .................................... 67 2.2.1 IndividualCommunicationandEvolvingInterpretation oftheCovenant...................................... 67 2.2.2 Yeo-BumYoonandMyung-JinChoiVRepublicofKorea.. 70 2.2.3 ConsiderationofReportsSubmittedbyStatesParties UnderArticle40oftheCovenant....................... 74 2.3 ConcludingRemarks........................................ 80 References..................................................... 81 3 RighttoConscientiousObjectioninEuropeanHumanRightsLaw .. 83 3.1 EuropeanHumanRightsNorms .............................. 84 3.1.1 DraftingtheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights ...... 84 3.1.2 Silenceofthe TravauxPre´paratoiresoftheEuropean Convention on Human Rights with Respect to ConscientiousObjection .............................. 88 3.1.3 ResolutionsbytheCouncilofEurope ................... 88 3.1.4 CharterofFundamentalRightsofEuropeanUnion ........ 94 3.2 The European Commission of Human Rights andtheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights ...................... 95 3.2.1 EarlierIndividualPetitions ............................ 96 3.2.2 IndividualPetitionsArguingViolationofProhibition ofDiscrimination ....................................100 3.2.3 IndividualPetitionsArguingViolationofProhibition ofDegradingTreatment...............................101 3.2.4 EuropeanCommitteeofSocialRights...................103 3.3 CommissionerforHumanRightsoftheCouncilofEurope........104 3.3.1 GreekPractice.......................................105 3.3.2 FinnishPractice .....................................106 3.4 ConcludingRemarks........................................109 References.....................................................109 Contents xi 4 Inter-AmericanHumanRightsLaw..............................111 4.1 Inter-AmericanHumanRightsInstitutions–anUnsettledPosition .112 4.2 ConcludingRemarks........................................118 References.....................................................118 5 InternationalRefugeeLawandConscientiousObjection ...........119 5.1 ConscientiousObjectorasAsylumSeeker......................119 5.2 ThresholdsforConscientiousObjectorasAsylumSeeker.........121 5.3 StatePractice ..............................................124 5.3.1 TheKrotovCase.....................................125 5.3.2 HinzmanCase.......................................127 5.3.3 Position of Refugee Status Appeals Authority ofNewZealand .....................................129 5.3.4 IranianSelectiveConscientiousObjectorinTimeofPeace..130 5.3.5 EuropeanUnionQualificationDirective .................131 5.4 ConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryServiceItselfasGround forAsylum................................................133 5.5 ConcludingRemarks........................................133 References.....................................................135 6 Defence of Superior Orders: Duties of Individuals to Disobey ManifestlyIllegalOrdersunderInternationalLaw ................137 6.1 DefenceofSuperiorOrdersandDutiesofIndividuals ............137 6.2 HistoryofDefenceofSuperiorOrdersUnderInternationalLaw ...139 6.3 MainTheoriesoftheDefenceofSuperiorOrders................155 6.3.1 DoctrineofRespondeatSuperior .......................155 6.3.2 DoctrineofAbsoluteLiability .........................156 6.3.3 ConditionalLiabilityApproach:ManifestIllegality Principle ...........................................157 6.3.4 DoctrineofMitigationFactor ..........................158 6.3.5 DoctrineofJustificationandExcuse ....................159 6.3.6 ObservationonTheoriesofDefenceofSuperiorOrders....161 6.4 CriminalityandIllegalityofInternationalWrongfulAct ..........163 6.4.1 Genocide...........................................163 6.4.2 Apartheid...........................................168 6.4.3 Aggression .........................................173 6.4.4 CrimesAgainstHumanityandWarCrimes...............176 6.5 ConcludingObservation.....................................178 References.....................................................179 7 ImpactsofJusAdBellumandJusInBelloonRightsandDuties ofIndividualstoDisobeyManifestlyIllegalOrders ................183 7.1 OntheDistinctionbetweenJusAdBellumandJusInBello .......183 7.2 HistoryofJusAdBellumandJusInBello ......................185 7.3 RelationshipsbetweenJusAdBellumandJusInBello............187
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