International Governance and Regulation of the Marine Arctic

118 Pages·2010·1.99 MB·English

for a living planet
International
Governance and
Regulation of the
Marine Arctic
Three reports prepared for the WWF
International Arctic Programme by
TImo KoIvurovA
ErIK J. molEnAAr
Overview and Gap analysis
I.
OptiOns fOr addressinG identified Gaps
II.
a prOpOsal fOr a leGally BindinG instrument
III.
table of Contents
Foreword.................................................................................................................................5
I. Overview and gap analysis
Executive.summary.................................................................................................................8
Introduction..........................................................................................................................8
Current.international.law.of.the.sea.....................................................................................9
Sectoral.governance.and.regulation.of.the.marine.Arctic..................................................10
Cross-sectoral.issues........................................................................................................10
List.of.abbreviations..............................................................................................................13
1..Introduction........................................................................................................................14
2..Overview.of.the.current.international.governance.and.regulatory..
regime.of.the.marine.Arctic...................................................................................................15
2.1..Introduction.................................................................................................................15
2.2..The.spatial.scope.of.the.marine.Arctic........................................................................15
2.3..The.Arctic.Council.and.its.constitutive.instrument......................................................16
2.4..The.current.international.law.of.the.sea......................................................................17
2.5..OSPAR.Convention.....................................................................................................19
2.5.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................19
2.5.2..Shipping................................................................................................................21
2.5.3..Dumping.and.pollution.from.offshore.sources.....................................................22
2.5.4. Marine scientific research and bioprospecting ....................................................23
2.5.5..Other.existing,.new.or.emerging.activities............................................................23
2.5.6..Representative.networks.of.MPAs........................................................................23
2.5.7..Assessments,.including.EIA.and.SEA...................................................................24
2.6..Sectoral.governance.and.regulation.of.the.marine.Arctic...........................................24
2.6.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................24
2.6.2..Fisheries.management..........................................................................................24
2.6.3..Shipping................................................................................................................26
2.6.4..Offshore.hydrocarbon.activities............................................................................31
2.7..Cross-sectoral.issues..................................................................................................34
2.7.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................34
2.7.2..Transboundary.EIA.and.SEA.................................................................................34
2.7.3..EIA.and.SEA.in.areas.beyond.national.jurisdiction...............................................36
2.7.4..Representative.networks.of.MPAs........................................................................38
2.7.5..Integrated,.cross-sectoral.ecosystem-based.ocean.management......................40
2.8..Other.relevant.global,.regional.and.bilateral.agreements............................................41
3..Gap.analysis.......................................................................................................................43
3.1..Introduction.................................................................................................................43
3.2..Arctic.Council.and.its.constitutive.instrument.............................................................43
3.3..The.current.international.law.of.the.sea......................................................................44
3.3.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................44
3.3.2..The.need.for.regional.implementation..................................................................44
3.3.3..Non-participation.by.the.United.States.in.the.LOS.Convention...........................48
3.3.4..Gaps.in.the.Fish.Stocks.Agreement.....................................................................48
3.3.5..Gaps.in.the.current.international.law.of.the.sea...................................................48
3.4..Sectoral.governance.and.regulation.of.the.marine.Arctic...........................................51
3.4.1..Fisheries.management..........................................................................................51
3.4.2..Shipping................................................................................................................52
3.4.3..Offshore.hydrocarbon.activities............................................................................52
3.5..Cross-sectoral.issues..................................................................................................53
3.5.1..(Transboundary).EIA.and.SEA...............................................................................53
3.5.2..Representative.networks.of.MPAs........................................................................53
3.5.3..Integrated,.cross-sectoral.ecosystem-based.ocean.management......................53
II. Options for addressing identified gaps
Executive.summary...............................................................................................................55
Introduction........................................................................................................................55
General.principles.and.considerations..............................................................................55
Arctic.Council.and.its.constitutive.instrument...................................................................56
Sectoral.governance.and.regulation..................................................................................56
Integrated,.cross-sectoral.ecosystem-based.oceans.management.................................58
List.of.abbreviations..............................................................................................................60
1..Introduction........................................................................................................................61
2. General principles and considerations for addressing identified gaps .............................62
2.1..Introduction.................................................................................................................62
2.2..Necessity.....................................................................................................................62
2.3..Timing.and.comprehensiveness.of.reform:.pro-active/precautionary,.fair.and.
equitable.and.cost-effective..............................................................................................62
2.4..Type,.level.and.proposals.for.reform...........................................................................64
2.5..Balancing.the.rights,.interests.and.obligations.of.states,.the.international..
community.and.Indigenous.peoples..................................................................................65
2.6..The.relevance.of.Articles.122–123.of.the.LOS.Convention.........................................67
3. Options for addressing identified gaps in the Arctic Council and its constitutive
instrument.............................................................................................................................69
4. Options for addressing identified gaps in sectoral governance and regulation................72
4.1..Introduction.................................................................................................................72
4.2..Fisheries.management................................................................................................72
4.2.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................72
4.2.2. Declaration on new and existing fisheries in the Arctic Ocean.............................73
4.2.3..Adjusting.the.spatial.scope.of.the.NEAFC.Convention........................................73
4.3..Shipping......................................................................................................................76
4.4..Offshore.hydrocarbon.activities..................................................................................78
5..Options.for.pursuing.integrated,.cross-sectoral.ecosystem-based..
oceans.management.............................................................................................................79
5.1..Introduction.................................................................................................................79
5.2..Soft-law.vs.hard-law...................................................................................................79
5.3..Adjusting.the.spatial.scope.of.the.OSPAR.Convention...............................................80
5.4..The.suitability.of.the.Antarctic.Treaty.system.as.a.model...........................................82
international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic 
5.4.1..Introduction...........................................................................................................82
5.4.2..Unsuitable.elements.............................................................................................84
5.4.3..Elements.unlikely.to.be.suitable...........................................................................85
5.4.4..Suitable.elements.................................................................................................85
5.5..Implementing.Agreement.under.the.LOS.Convention................................................85
5.6..Conclusions.................................................................................................................87
III. a proposal for a legally binding instrument
Executive.Summary...............................................................................................................89
Introduction........................................................................................................................89
Rationale............................................................................................................................89
Basic.features....................................................................................................................89
Annex:.Possible.Title,.Structure.and.Main.Elements.of.the.Envisaged.Instrument...........92
List.of.abbreviations..............................................................................................................94
1..Introduction.......................................................................................................................95
2..Rationale...........................................................................................................................96
3..Basic.Features...................................................................................................................97
3.1..General........................................................................................................................97
3.2..Framework.instrument................................................................................................98
3.3..Safety.net....................................................................................................................99
4..Participation.in.the.framework.instrument.and.its.Protocols..........................................101
5..Negotiation.process........................................................................................................103
6..Elements..........................................................................................................................104
6.1..Introduction...............................................................................................................104
6.2..Title...........................................................................................................................104
6.3..Preamble...................................................................................................................105
6.4..Objective.and.general.principles...............................................................................105
6.5..Spatial.scope............................................................................................................106
6.6..Main.obligations........................................................................................................107
6.7..Institutional.structure................................................................................................108
6.8..Mandate.and.decision-making.................................................................................108
6.9. Other and final provisions.........................................................................................109
6.10..Annexes..................................................................................................................109
6.11..Protocols.................................................................................................................110
Appendix.I:.Objectives.and.principles.of.selected.international.instruments..................111
The Authors
Timo Koivurova is.Research.Professor.at.the.Northern.Institute.for.Environmental.and.Minority.Law.(NIEM),.Arctic.
Centre, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi. The author can be contacted at: [email protected].
Erik J. Molenaar is.Senior.Research.Associate.at.the.Netherlands.Institute.for.the.Law.of.the.Sea.(NILOS),.Utrecht.
University.and.Adjunct.Professor.at.the.Faculty.of.Law,.University.of.Tromsø..The.author.can.be.contacted.at:.
[email protected]..
 international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic
CORRECTION
Please note an error in the Foreword on page 5. Under ‘Options’, point 2
should read “Adjusting existing international frameworks and agreements,
such as the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic”, so that the whole paragraph reads as follows:
---
Options
The various options for addressing these governance gaps include:
1. Sectoral-based improvements such as adjusting existing fisheries agreements
2. Adjusting existing international frameworks and agreements, such as the Convention
for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
3. Reforming the Arctic Council, a meeting place for the eight arctic states and
Indigenous peoples of the Arctic
All these options either fall short of providing adequate protection for the arctic marine
environment, or are difficult to achieve.
---
Oslo, 8 February 2010

foreword
the problem
As.the.dangerous.effects.of.climate.change.are.increasingly.being.observed.throughout.
the.Arctic,.it.has.become.apparent.that.a.new.multilateral.agreement.for.the.protection.of.
the.arctic.marine.environment.is.urgently.needed.to.respond.to.this.crisis..
.As.climate.change.causes.the.ice.to.melt.and.new.areas.to.open.up,.this.unique.
environment.is.facing.unprecedented.changes.and.serious.threats.from.increased.activities.
such as shipping, oil and gas and fishing. In light of these rapid changes, the current
regulatory.and.governance.regime.for.protection.of.the.arctic.marine.environment.has.
become.inadequate.and.new.measures.must.be.adopted.if.we.are.to.protect.and.preserve.
the.marine.environment.and.sustainably.use.the.Arctic’s.marine.resources...
WWF.commissioned.these.three.reports.to.examine.the.current.governance.regime,.
identify.governance.and.regulatory.gaps.and.analyze.options.for.improvements..The.
reports,.which.are.authored.by.international.legal.experts.Timo.Koivurova.and.Erik.J..
Molenaar,..conclude.that.one.of.the.best.options.is.to.adopt.a.new.multilateral.agreement..
A.brief.overview.of.the.reports.is.provided.below..WWF’s.goal.is.to.work.with.arctic.states.
and.arctic.Indigenous.peoples.to.promote.the.closure.of.the.‘governance.gaps’,.protection.
and.preservation.of.the.Arctic.Ocean.and.sustainable.ecosystem-based.management.of.its.
resources.
Governance gaps
The.legal.instruments.relevant.to.protecting.the.Arctic’s.marine.environment.are.
numerous,.yet.incoherent.and.incomplete..There.are.serious.gaps.which.are.too.large.
and complex to be filled by a simple adjustment of the existing legal and institutional
framework..For.example:.
• The.existing.framework.is.too.focused.either.on.individual.issues,.or.individual.
places,.to.adequately.cover.the.entire.Arctic..It.does.not.take.into.account.the.reality.
of.ecosystems.that.cross.sectoral.and.geographical.boundaries..
• The.existing.framework.also.fails.to.take.into.account.the.cumulative.effects.of.
different offshore activities such as fishing and oil and gas.
• Given the pace of change in the Arctic, it is difficult to see how the Arctic and its
ocean.could.be.sustainably.and.coherently.managed.without.an.institution.with.the.
legal.and.political.mandate.to.carry.out.the.necessary.changes.to.ensure.the.arctic.
ecosystem.is.protected..Rules.alone.-.especially.non-legally.binding.ones.-.are.hardly.
enough.to.govern.the.new.sea.emerging.from.the.sea.ice..
Options
The.various.options.for.addressing.these.governance.gaps.include:
1. Sectoral-based improvements such as adjusting existing fisheries agreements
2..Adjusting.existing.international.frameworks.and.agreements,.such.as.the.
3..Reforming.the.Arctic.Council,.a.meeting.place.for.the.eight.arctic.states.and.
Indigenous.peoples.of.the.Arctic.
All.these.options.either.fall.short.of.providing.adequate.protection.for.the.arctic.marine.
environment, or are difficult to achieve.
international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic 
solutions
The.report.authors.conclude.that.the.best.option.from.a.legal.and.regulatory.
perspective.is.to.develop.a.new.international.framework.agreement.covering.the.entire.
Arctic,.across.all.sectors..Such.a.legally.binding.agreement.for.the.marine.Arctic.would.
address the identified governance gaps. This option would allow for management on an
ecosystem.level,.which.is.the.best.tool.for.ensuring.sustainable.management.of.marine.
resources.in.the.Arctic..The.new.Arctic.Sea.emerging.from.the.melting.ice.requires.
a.regional.regime.tailor-made.for.arctic.conditions.developed.under.the.overarching.
framework.of.the.United.Nations.Convention.on.the.Law.of.the.Sea.(UNCLOS)..Such.a.
regional.regulatory.and.governance.framework.should.ensure:
• Protection.and.preservation.of.the.ecological.processes.in.the.arctic.marine.
environment
• Long-term.conservation.and.sustainable.and.equitable.use.of.marine.resources
• Socio-economic benefits for present and future generations, in particular for
Indigenous.peoples.of.the.Arctic.region
• Action.to.address.the.unprecedented.natural.changes.the.Arctic.is.facing
A.new.legally.binding.comprehensive.agreement.with.a.new.institutional.setup.which.
will.be.able.to.ensure.protection.and.preservation.of.the.Arctic.Ocean.and.sustainable.
ecosystem-based.management.of.its.resources.would.be.an.optimal.solution.in.WWF’s.
view..However,.WWF.would.welcome.any.solution.which.allows.reaching.these.goals.in.a.
comprehensive.and.binding.manner..
Dr..Tatiana.Saksina,.LL.M.
 international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic
Overview and Gap analysis
I.
Photo:.WFF.Cannon
Photo:.Staffan.Widstrand Photo:.Øyvind.Hagen/StatoilHydro Photo:.Staffan.Widstrand
international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic 
I..Overview.and.Gap.Analysis
executive summary
introduction
This.report.was.commissioned.by.the.WWF.International.Arctic.Programme.to.
examine.the.adequacy.of.the.current.international.governance.and.regulatory.regime.of.
the.marine.Arctic.in.light.of.current.and.future.impacts.of.climate.change.on.the.Arctic..
The.main.elements.of.this.report.are.an.overview.of.the.current.international.governance.
and.regulatory.regime.of.the.marine.Arctic.and.an.analysis.of.the.main.governance.and.
regulatory.gaps.in.that.regime..
The.mandate.was.to.examine.the.governance.and.regulation.of.human.activities.
occurring.within.the.marine.Arctic,.the.current.report.devotes.no.attention.to.human.
activities.taking.place.far.beyond.the.Arctic.but.having.an.impact.within.it.(e.g..long-range.
transboundary.air.pollution.or.global.climate.change)..This.therefore.also.determines.the.
scope.of.the.overview.of.the.current.international.regime.of.the.marine.Arctic.and.the.gap.
analysis..
For.the.purpose.of.this.report,.governance.gaps.and.regulatory.gaps.are.understood.to.
mean.the.following:.
‘Governance.gaps’:.gaps.in.the.international.institutional.framework,.including.the.absence.of.institutions.
or.mechanisms.at.a.global,.regional.or.sub-regional.level.and.inconsistent.mandates.of.existing.
organizations.and.mechanisms.
‘Regulatory.gaps’:.substantive.and/or.geographical.gaps.in.the.international.legal.framework,.i.e..issues.
which are currently unregulated or insufficiently regulated at a global, regional or subregional level.
The identified gaps are grouped below under the headings ‘Arctic Council and its
Constitutive.Instrument’,.‘Current.International.Law.of.the.Sea’,.‘Sectoral.Governance.and.
Regulation.of.the.Marine.Arctic’.and.‘Cross-Sectoral.Issues’.
Arctic.Council.and.its.constitutive.instrument
The.following.seem.to.be.the.main.gaps:
1.. No legally binding obligations. The.Ottawa.Declaration.on.the.Establishment.of.
the.Arctic.Council.does.not.impose.legally.binding.obligations.on.any.of.its.participants.
and.the.Arctic.Council.is.also.not.empowered.to.do.so..
2.. Not an operational body..The.Arctic.Council.is.project-driven.and.is.not.
empowered.to.impose.legally.binding.obligations.on.any.of.its.participants..While.a.
number.of.useful.non-legally.binding.guidelines.are.produced.within.the.framework.of.the.
Arctic Council, the impacts of these are difficult to determine given that the Council does
not.systematically.evaluate.whether.these.are.being.followed.
3.. Limited participation..The.Arctic.Council.is.quite.unique.due.to.the.role.it.gives.
to.the.region’s.Indigenous.peoples,.but.non-arctic.states.can.only.obtain.observer.status..
It.could.be.argued.that.this.is.not.a.problem.in.view.of.the.current.role.and.powers.of.the.
Arctic.Council,.which.do.not.directly.affect.the.rights.of.non-arctic.states.in.the.Arctic..On.
the.other.hand,.it.can.also.be.argued.that.by.giving.the.Arctic.Council.such.a.limited.role.
and.powers,.the.arctic.states.have.not.discharged.certain.obligations.under.international.
law.and.thereby.affect.the.rights.and.interests.of.other.states.and.the.international.
community.
 international Governance and regulation of the marine arctic
I..Overview.and.Gap.Analysis