International encyclopedia of the social sciences - Abortion - Cognitive Dissonance

755 Pages·2008·6.64 MB·English

by  William A. Darity

International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences, 2nd edition
International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences, 2nd edition
VOLUME 1
ABORTION–COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
William A. Darity Jr.
EDITOR IN CHIEF
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd edition
William A. Darity Jr., Editor in Chief
© 2008 The Gale Group. For permission to use material from this prod- accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion
Thomson, Star Logo and Macmillan Reference uct, submit your request via Web at in the publication of any organization,
USA are trademarks and Gale is a registered http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you agency, institution, publication, service, or
trademark used herein under license. may download our Permissions Request form individual does not imply endorsement of the
and submit your request by fax or mail to: editors or publisher. Errors brought to the
For more information, contact attention of the publisher and verified to the
Macmillan Reference USA Permissions Department satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected
An imprint of The Gale Group Gale 27500 Drake Rd. in future editions.
27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline:
Or you can visit our Internet site at 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253 ext. 8006
http://www.gale.com Fax: [phone] or 800-762-4058
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Since this page cannot legibly accommodate
No part of this work covered by the copyright all copyright notices, the credits constitute an
hereon may be reproduced or used in any extension of the copyright notice.
form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, record- While every effort has been made to ensure
ing, taping, Web distribution, or information the reliability of the information presented in
storage retrieval systems-without the written this publication, Gale does not guarantee the
permission of the publisher. accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
International encyclopedia of the social sciences / William A. Darity, Jr., editor in chief.—
2nd ed. v. cm. Rev. ed. of: International encyclopedia of the social sciences / David L.
Sills, editor. c1968–c1991.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7 (set hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865966-4
(v. 1 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865967-1 (v. 2 hardcover : alk. paper)—
ISBN 978-0-02-865968-8 (v. 3 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865969-5
(v. 4 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865970-1 (v. 5 hardcover : alk. paper)—
ISBN 978-0-02-865971-8 (v. 6 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865972-5
(v. 7 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-865973-2 (v. 8 hardcover : alk. paper)—
ISBN 978-0-02-866141-4 (v. 9 hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-02-866117-9
(ebook : alk. paper)
1. Social sciences—Dictionaries. 2. Social sciences—Encyclopedias. I. Darity, William A.,
1953– II. Title:Encyclopedia of the social sciences.
H40.A2I5 2008
300.3–dc22
2007031829
0-02-865965-1 (set) 0-02-865970-8 (v. 5)
0-02-865966-X (v. 1) 0-02-865971-6 (v. 6)
0-02-865967-8 (v. 2) 0-02-865972-4 (v. 7)
0-02-865968-6 (v. 3) 0-02-865973-2 (v. 8)
0-02-865969-4 (v. 4) 0-02-866141-9 (v. 9)
This title is also available as an e-book.
ISBN 978-0-02-866117-9; 0-02-866117-6
Contact your Gale representative for ordering information.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Editorial Board
EDITOR IN CHIEF Donald M. Nonini
Professor of Anthropology and Director of Graduate
William A. Darity Jr.
Studies for Anthropology, University of North Carolina
Arts & Sciences Professor of Public Policy Studies,
at Chapel Hill
Professor of African and African-American Studies
and Economics, and Director, Research Network on
David Scott
Racial and Ethnic Inequality, Duke University
Professor of Anthropology, Columbia University
Professor Emeritus of Economics and Sociology,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Theresa Singleton
Associate Professor of Anthropology, Maxwell School,
Syracuse University
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor of Sociology, Duke University
David Dietrich
Philip R. Costanzo
Department of Sociology, Duke University
Professor of Psychology, Duke University
J. Alan Kendrick
Patrick L. Mason
Director of Minority Recruitment and Retention,
Director, African American Studies Program, and
The Graduate School, University of North Carolina
Professor of Economics, Florida State University
at Chapel Hill
Paula McClain
Professor of Political Science, and Professor of Law, Ley Killeya-Jones
Public Policy, and African and African American Studies, Research Scientist, Center for Child and Family Policy,
Duke University Duke University
V
Editorial and Production Staff
PROJECT EDITORS Nicole Watkins INDEXER
Shawn Corridor, Alan Hedblad Mark Springer Factiva, a Dow Jones & Reuters
Company
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS MANUSCRIPT EDITORS
Lawrence W. Baker Deborah J. Baker PRODUCT DESIGN
Deirdre S. Blanchfield Sheryl A. Ciccarelli Pamela A.E. Galbreath
Thomas Carson Judith A. Clinebell
Jaime E. Lieber Tony Coulter
Mark Mikula Judith Culligan GRAPHIC ART
Jenai Mynatt Anne C. Davidson
GGS Information Services
Rebecca Parks Christa Gainor
Christine Slovey Jessica Hornik Evans
Kristy Swartout Elizabeth Inserra
COMPOSITION
Jennifer York Stock Peter Jaskowiak
Evi Abou-El-Seoud
Leslie Joseph
Jean Fortune Kaplan
EDITORIAL ASSISTANTS Eric Lowenkron
MANUFACTURING
Kelli N. Cook Raymond Lukens
Lauren Therese Grace Nancy Matuszak Rhonda Dover
Kristen M. Peltonen Matthew May
Robert James Russell Mya Nelson
Dawn M. Sobraski Michael J. O’Neal DIRECTOR, NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Sara Teller
Darcy L. Thompson Hélène Potter
PROOFREADERS
Carol Holmes
EDITORIAL TECHNICAL SUPPORT Karen Price PUBLISHER
Mark Drouillard Donna Wright Jay Flynn
VII
Contents
VOLUME 1
Introduction XI
List of Articles XVII
List of Contributors XLV
Thematic Outline CXXIII
Abortion–Cognitive Dissonance 1
VOLUME 2
Cohabitation–Ethics in Experimentation
VOLUME 3
Ethnic Conflict–Inequality, Gender
VOLUME 4
Inequality, Income–Marxism, Black
VOLUME 5
Masculinity–Nyerere, Julius
VOLUME 6
Oaxaca, Ronald–Quotas, Trade
IX
Contents
VOLUME 7
Rabin, Yitzhak–Sociology, Micro-
VOLUME 8
Sociology, Parsonian–Vulnerability
VOLUME 9
Wage and Price Controls–Z-Test 1
Annotated Bibliography 185
Index 207
X INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2ND EDITION
Introduction
Late in 2004 I received a telephone call from Hélène Potter, director of new product devel-
opment for Macmillan Reference USA—an imprint of Gale. I did not realize immediately
that it was the telephone call that would shape a large share of my intellectual activity for
the next three years. In fact, I recall hearing about a new edition of the International Ency-
clopedia of the Social Sciences (IESS), but I was wholly unclear about what was being asked
of me. I asked Hélène, “So what exactly is it you want me to do? Prepare an article or two
for the new edition?” Her response was, “No, no. We would like you to serve as editor of
the new encyclopedia.” While vaguely glimpsing the labor that would be required to pull
this off properly, but also realizing the importance of the project, I agreed.
I was aware of both the 1930–1935 Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, edited by
E. R. A. Seligman and Alvin Johnson, and Macmillan’s 1968 International Encyclopedia of
the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills, not only as key reference works of continuing
value but also as vital expressions of the state of the social sciences (and the sociology of the
social science community) at their respective historical moments. It would be an honor and
a unique opportunity to play a key role in the development of the new encyclopedia that
would assess the scope of the social sciences at the start of the twenty-first century.
From the outset, the decision was made to commission an entirely new set of articles
for the second edition of IESS; no articles on overlapping topics from the previous edition
would be reproduced in part or in whole. Instead, we would seek new voices and fresh per-
spectives for all of the entries. In fact, a few contributors even chose to make observations
about entries from the previous edition in their articles.
The vision in assembling the new edition was to achieve comprehensiveness in cover-
age, to identify authors who would give their articles a critical edge and minimize hagio-
graphic treatment of the leading figures in the fields represented, and to produce a set of
volumes in which contested intellectual cum ideological terrain is openly and honestly
explored. Indeed, the new edition includes a variety of entries related to the philosophy of
science that call into question what makes the study of the human “social” a “science” in the
first place. Is it a matter of a particular set of practices, that is, variations on the “scientific
method”? Is it a perspective or point of view that guides inquiry, that is, a detachment from
practical or applied aims or a putative “objectivity”? Or is it something else altogether?
XI
Introduction
WHAT’S NEW IN THE NEW EDITION
The new edition reflects the impact of the rise of critical theory in its postmodernist forms
on the social sciences, especially in the arenas of cultural anthropology, qualitative sociology,
and methodology. Simultaneously, it includes the most sophisticated theoretical reaction to
those developments—the reaction that has sublated those developments by challenging the
nihilistic thrust of postmodernism—in the form of realist theory; the latter is not to be con-
fused with “realism” or “realpolitik.” The new edition incorporates transformative develop-
ments in the social sciences: the routinization of the use of applied statistics and
mathematical modeling in economics, psychology, and sociology; the rise of cultural stud-
ies, including the study of popular culture; the exploration of race, ethnicity, phenotype,
and identity across the social sciences; the emergence of gender studies and women’s stud-
ies; the “coming out” of queer studies; the study of memory as something far more than a
biomechanical act; and the recent construction and development of concepts like “the
other,” Orientalism, causality, postcolonialism, the clash of civilizations, the gaze, margin-
alization, occupational crowding, generation X, and gentrification.
In addition, the new edition embodies the changing demographics of the academy. The
1968 IESShad an editorial advisory board consisting of more than 120 members. This was
a highly distinguished group of scholars, a number of whom are profiled with biographical
entries in the current IESS: Gordon Allport, Gabriel Almond, Kenneth B. Clark, Erik Erik-
son, E. E. Evans-Pritchard, E. Franklin Frazier, Morris Janowitz, Harold Lasswell, Paul
Lazarsfeld, Claude Lévi-Strauss, W. Arthur Lewis, Margaret Mead, Robert K. Merton, Gun-
nar Myrdal, Talcott Parsons, Don Patinkin, Jean Piaget, Paul Samuelson, Herbert Simon,
George Stigler, and Jan Tinbergen. Lewis, Samuelson, Simon, Stigler, and Tinbergen all
became Nobel laureates in economics. But I count only three women—Mead, Hanna Rizk
at the American University in Cairo, and Monica Wilson at the University of Cape Town—
out of all of the members of the editorial advisory board.
By the late 1960s, the social sciences remained an overwhelmingly male preserve. Nev-
ertheless, I was startled to find Alvin Johnson making the following remarks in his foreword
to the 1968 IESSwhen discussing the genesis of the earlier Encyclopaedia of the Social Sci-
ences:
It was not unnatural that Professor Seligman should ask me to examine the great com-
mission he had undertaken as editor of the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. He
unfolded his plan—himself as editor, an associate editor, a copy editor (probably a
depressed lady scholar), three or four secretaries, and a far-flung farming out of articles.
I loved E.R.A., and I hated to throw cold water on his ideas, but I had to say that
this is no way to make a real encyclopedia. In the first place, articles should not be
farmed out. Every article should be assigned to the man who is to sign it.
I was particularly startled by Johnson’s casual reference to “a depressed lady scholar”—who,
if actually depressed, probably became so because of the professional discrimination she faced
that assigned her to a position lower than the one she deserved—and the ease with which the
assumption was made that the authors of articles would be men. Although we have not yet
attained gender equity in the academy—indeed, it was still possible in 2005 to publish a vol-
ume titled The Origins of Law and Economics: Essays by the Founding Fathers—the current edi-
tion of IESSis richly alert to the contributions of female scholars in the social sciences.
We are much further from achieving racial equity in the academy, but, arguably, black
scholars have made contributions that are disproportionate to their numerical presence in
the social sciences. I believe those contributions are fully evident in the current IESSas well.
Contributions from scholars from marginalized groups—the 1968 editorial advisory board
included, at most, five black scholars—appear in the new edition through the regular
process of identifying important developments in the social sciences. Their work is so cen-
tral to ongoing scholarship across the social sciences that it can no longer be ignored, dis-
missed, or hidden from view.
XII INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2ND EDITION