Integration of distributed energy resources in power systems : implementation, operation and control

313 Pages·2016·35.983 MB·English

by  Funabashi, Toshihisa

Integration of Distributed Energy
Resources in Power Systems
Implementation, Operation, and Control
Edited by
Toshihisa Funabashi
Institute of Materials and Systems for Sustainability (IMaSS)
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
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List of contributors
Hassan Bevrani
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Kurdistan, Kurdistan,
Sanandaj, Iran
Alberto Borghetti
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, University
of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Toshihisa Funabashi
Institute of Materials and Systems for Sustainability (IMaSS), Nagoya University,
Nagoya, Japan
Raza Haider
Department of Electrical Engineering, Balochistan University of Engineering and
Technology, Khuzdar, Pakistan
Ryoichi Hara
Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University,
Hokkaido, Japan
Masahide Hojo
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Tokushima University, Japan
Abdul Motin Howlader
Postdoctoral Fellow University of Hawaii, Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii
Toshifumi Ise
Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
Takeyoshi Kato
Institute of Materials and Systems for Sustainability (IMaSS), Nagoya University,
Nagoya, Japan
Chul-Hwan Kim
School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University,
Republic of Korea
Jinjun Liu
Xi’an Jiatong University, Xi’an, China
Yusuke Manabe
Funded Research Division Energy Systems (Chubu Electric Power), Institute of Materials
and Systems for Sustainability (IMaSS), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Carlo Alberto Nucci
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, University
of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Shozo Sekioka
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Shonan Institute of Technology,
Japan
xi
xii List of contributors
Tomonobu Senjyu
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of the Ryukyus,
Okinawa, Japan
Atsushi Yona
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University
of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
Kazuto Yukita
Aichi Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Toyota, Japan
1
Chapter
Introduction
Toshihisa Funabashi
Institute of Materials and Systems for Sustainability (IMaSS),
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Distributed generation resources 3
1.2.1 Reciprocating engines 3
1.2.2 Microturbine generator (MTG) system 4
1.2.3 Fuel cells 5
1.3 Renewable energy sources 6
1.3.1 Wind energy conversion system 6
1.3.2 PV energy system 7
1.3.3 Biomass 8
1.3.4 Geothermal energy 9
1.3.5 Hydro energy 9
1.4 Energy storage systems 9
1.4.1 Electric double layer capacitor 10
1.4.2 Battery energy storage system 10
1.4.3 Superconducting magnetic energy storage 10
1.4.4 Flywheel 11
1.4.5 Plug in electric vehicle 11
1.5 Smart grid 11
References 13
1.1 INTRODUCTION
World energy demand has been increasing exponentially. Conventional en-
ergy resources (eg, coal, oil, and gas) are exhaustible and limited in supply.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to conserve what we have and explore
alternative energy resources. Among various types of renewable energy re-
sources, solar and wind energies are the most promising for humankind [1].
Because of the large amount of renewable energies, the renewable energy
1
Integration of Distributed Energy Resources in Power Systems
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
sources will be the backbone of the energy system in future [2]. Over time,
renewable energy will gradually displace coal, oil, and gas from our energy
consumption patterns. In order to integrate a large amount of renewable ener-
gies into the power system, it is required to reconfigure the existing energy
systems. The intelligent power grid or smart grid (SG) is key to this trans-
formation. In the future, SG systems will be composed of several elements
such as distributed renewable energy sources, a strong power grid, a flexible
consumption, and an intelligent power control system [3]. Distributed renew-
able energy sources (eg, wind turbine, photovoltaic, fuel cell, biomass, smart
house, etc.) and energy storage devices (eg, battery, electric double layer ca-
pacitor, superconducting magnetic energy storage, etc.) are expected to play
a vital role for the green SG system and to meet the future energy demand
[4,5]. The distributed generations (DGs) locate generation close to the load,
that is, on the distribution network or on the customer side of the meter [6].
DGs have great potential to improve distribution system performance and
should be encouraged [7].
Rating of DGs: The maximum rating of the DG which can be connected to
a distributed generation depends on the capacity of the distribution system
that is interrelated with the voltage level of the distribution system. Hence,
the capacity of DGs can vary widely. There are four different categories of
DGs which are as follows [8]:
Micro. DG range: ∼1 W < 5 kW;
Small. DG range: 5 kW < 5 MW;
Medium. DG range: 5 MW < 50 MW;
Large. DG range: 50 MW < ∼300 MW.
Due to the various types of DGs, the generation electric current can be either
direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Photovoltaic, fuel cell, and
batteries generate the DC which is appropriate for DC loads and DC SG. On
the other hand, the DC can be converted to the AC by using power electron-
ics interface and then it can be connected to the AC loads and power grid.
Other DGs such as wind turbine, micro turbine, and biomass deliver an AC
which for some applications must be controlled by using modern power
electronic equipments in order to acquire the regulated voltage [9].
Application of DGs: There are several applications of DG in the power
system such as [9]:
j The DG can be scattered in different places. It can be utilized as a
standby power source. If the grid power cuts off the sensitive loads,
for example, process industries and hospitals, the DG can provide the
emergency power for these loads.
1.2 Distributed generation resources 3
j The DG can supply power for the isolated communities where areas
are geographical obstacles and difficult to connect the main power grid.
Therefore, the DG can improve the economic condition for isolated
communities.
j The electric power cost depends on the electric load. When the load
demand is high, the electric power price will be high and vice versa.
The DG can supply the electric power to the load when the demand is
high. As a result, the customer can reduce the electricity cost to pay
time-of-use rates.
j The DG can supply power for the rural and remote applications which
include lighting, heating, cooling, communication, and small industrial
processes.
j Individual DG owner is usually used as a base load to provide part of
the main required power and support the grid by enhancing the system
voltage profile. The DG also helps to reduce the power losses and
improving the system power quality.
1.2 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION RESOURCES
Photovoltaic (PV) energy, wind turbines, and other distributed generation
plants are typically situated in remote areas, requiring the operation systems
that are fully integrated into transmission and distribution network [10].
The aim of the SG is to integrate all generation plants reduce the cost and
greenhouse gas emission. A detailed discussion about the distributed energy
resources and SG system is considered next in this section.
The DG is also known as the local generation, on-site generation, or distrib-
uted energy which produces electricity from some small energy sources. The
energy sources are directly connected to the medium voltage (MV) or low
voltage (LV) distribution systems, rather than to the bulk power transmission
systems. Different types of the DG resources are depicted in Fig. 1.1 [11].
The DG can be power supplied by conventional generation systems (eg,
diesel and gas generators) and nonconventional generation systems (eg, fuel
cells and renewable energy resources). Various types of energy storages are
also considered as the DG resources.
1.2.1 Reciprocating engines
The reciprocating engine is also known as the piston engine. It is an in-
ternal combustion engine (ICE) and can burn a variety of fuels, including
natural gas, diesel, biodiesel, biofuels, etc. The reciprocating engine, with
its compact size, wide range of power outputs, and fuel preferences, is an
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
■■FIGURE 1.1 DG sources. ideal prime mover for powering electricity generating sets used to deliver
primary power in remote locations or more generally for providing mobile
and emergency or stand-by electrical power. The power generation scales
of the reciprocating engines are differed from the 1 kVA (small scale) to
several tens of MVA (large scale) [11].
In case of the DG application, the reciprocating engine provides the lowest
cost of all combined heat and power (CHP) systems, high efficiencies, short
start-up times to full loads (10–15 s), and high reliability. But these types
of engines generate the emission pollutants (eg, NO , CO, SO , etc.) which
X X
might be harmful for the environment.
1.2.2 Microturbine generator (MTG) system
The MTG is one of the best systems of the DG. The MTG has the advan-
tages of being low (initial) cost, multifueled, reliable, and lightweight. In
addition, the MTG offers the cogeneration system that generates heat energy
as well as electric energy. This feature is suitable for the energy system of
hotels, hospitals, supermarkets, etc. Although the MTG generates the elec-
tric power using the natural gas, it has an environmental benefit, that is, low
nitrogen dioxide emission. But the energy efficiency of the MTG is lower
than the reciprocating engines [12].
1.2 Distributed generation resources 5
Fig. 1.2 illustrates the system configuration of the MTG. The operation of ■■FIGURE 1.2 System configuration of
this system is briefly explained as follows: the MTG.
j The compressor compresses the outside air.
j The compressed air is heated by the exhausting gas in the recuperator.
j The heated air is combined with the natural gas. Then the mixed gas
burns into the combustor.
j The combustion gas flows to the turbine, which generates the kinetic
energy. The output power of the turbine is utilized for both generator
and compressor.
j Since the output voltage of the generator is enclosed to the high
frequency, it is converted into the DC voltage by the converter. The
DC voltage is then converted into the AC voltage through the inverter
and the output power sends to the consumers.
1.2.3 Fuel cells
A fuel cell can produce electricity by a chemical reaction. There are many
types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electro-
lyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Elec-
trons are drained from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit,
producing DC electricity. As the main difference among fuel cell types is
the electrolyte, fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte. The major
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
types of the fuel cells are alkaline fuel cell (AFC), proton exchange mem-
brane fuel cell, phosphoric acid fuel cell, solid oxide fuel cell, and molten
carbonate fuel cell (MCFC). Since the fuel cells generate the DC electricity,
to obtain the AC electricity from fuel cells, power-conditioning equipment
is required to handle the conversion from DC to AC that is obligatory to be
included into the power distribution network [11].
The power generation capacity of fuel cells is diverged from 10 kW to
3 MW which depends on the types of fuel cells. In a fuel cell, hydrogen gas
is used as a fuel, hence, virtually no harmful emissions are generated by the
fuel cells. This results in power production that is almost entirely absent of
nitrogen oxide (NO ), sulfur dioxide (SO ) or particulate matter. On the
X X
other hand, fuel cells are highly efficient, fuel flexible, and suitable for the
CHP. There might be several disadvantages of the fuel cells such as MCFC
requires a long start-up time and low-power density, AFC is sensitive to
CO in fuel and air.
2
1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Due to the crisis of exhausting fossil fuels and considering the greenhouse
effect, it is predicted that over the next 20 years, fossil fuels will contribute
64% of the growth in energy. Renewables (eg, wind, solar, hydro, wave,
biofuels, etc.) will account for 18% of the global energy by 2030. The rate at
which renewables penetrate the global energy market is similar to the emer-
gence of nuclear power in the 1970s and 1980s [13]. Renewable energy
sources are emission free; hence, they will be vital part of the future SG
system. Different types of renewable energy sources are described in the
forthcoming sections.
1.3.1 Wind energy conversion system
A wind energy conversion system (WECS) is powered by wind energy and
generates mechanical energy that sends energy to the electrical genera-
tor for making electricity. Fig. 1.3 shows the interconnection of a WECS.
The generator of the wind turbine can be a permanent magnet synchronous
generator (PMSG), doubly fed induction generator, induction generator,
synchronous generator, etc. Wind energy acquired from the wind turbine
is sent to the generator. To achieve maximum power from the WECS, the
rotational speed of the generator is controlled by a pulse width modulation
converter. The output power of the generator is supplied to the grid through
a generator-side converter and a grid-side inverter. A wind farm can be dis-
tributed in onshore, offshore, seashore, or hilly areas. The WECS might be
the most promising DG for future SG.