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Instructional Design Principles for High-Stakes Problem-Solving Environments PDF

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Chwee Beng Lee · José Hanham  Jimmie Leppink Instructional Design Principles for High-Stakes Problem-Solving Environments Instructional Design Principles for High-Stakes Problem-Solving Environments Chwee Beng Lee • José Hanham Jimmie Leppink Instructional Design Principles for High-Stakes Problem-Solving Environments Chwee Beng Lee José Hanham Western Sydney University Western Sydney University Penrith, NSW, Australia Penrith, NSW, Australia Jimmie Leppink Maastricht University Maastricht, The Netherlands ISBN 978-981-13-2807-7 ISBN 978-981-13-2808-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2808-4 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958312 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Contents 1 Introduction: Problem Solving in High- Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 José Hanham, Chwee Beng Lee, and Jimmie Leppink Different Types of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Variation Within and Between Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Commonalities Across Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Audience for This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Organisation of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Part I Theoretical Foundations 2 Human Cognitive Architecture Through the Lens of Cognitive Load Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Jimmie Leppink and José Hanham Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Long-Term Memory or the Information Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Biologically Primary and Secondary Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Schema Construction and Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Working Memory or the Conscious Information Processing Centre . . . . 11 Learning Through the Lens of Cognitive Load Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Principles that Should Inform the Design of Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Element Interactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Types of Cognitive Load Distinguished Since the Conception of Cognitive Load Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Intrinsic Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Extraneous Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Germane Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 v vi Contents Essential and Nonessential Cognitive Load as Two Additive Types of Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Goal Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Parsimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Empirical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3 Expertise and Problem Solving in High- Stakes Environments . . . . . 25 José Hanham and Jimmie Leppink Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Practice and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Trained Intuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Standard Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Deliberate Practice and Intuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Pattern Recognition and Deliberate Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Intuition and Reflective Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Heuristics and Biases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Fractional Expertise and Transfer of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Expertise and Adaptation to Unknown Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Same Origin but Different Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Dealing with Dynamicity and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Part II H igh-Stakes Domains 4 Problem Solving in the Security Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Chwee Beng Lee and Jimmie Leppink Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Changing Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Increased International and Regional Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Cyber Security and Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Increasing Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Growing Diversity in Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Instruction in an Ever-Evolving Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Cognitive Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Severity and Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Situation Awareness and Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Implications for Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Sequencing of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Learners as Designers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Time, Collaboration and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Contents vii 5 Mental Processes in Emergency Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Jimmie Leppink and José Hanham Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Factors That Influence Cognitive Load and How That Cognitive Load Is Dealt With . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Emergency Setting Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Dealing with Emergency Setting Features (1): Multitasking . . . . . . . . 57 Dealing with Emergency Setting Features (2): Emotion, Stress and Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 How to Reduce Cognitive Load and the Likelihood of Error With It . . . . 58 Actions to Facilitate Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Closed-Loop Communication and Checklists to Facilitate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Developing Effective Task Switching Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6 Decision Making in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 José Hanham and Jimmie Leppink Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Loss of Control – Inflight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 High Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Selective Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Characteristics of Experienced Pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Experienced Pilots Are Not Immune to Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Standardised and Nonstandardised Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Prospective Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Checks and Omissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Cognitive Shortcuts: A Blessing and a Curse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Cockpit Design Advancements and Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Proximity Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Pictorial Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Judgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Predictive Aiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Mode Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Transitions from Novice to Intermediate and from Intermediate to Expert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Communication and Checklist Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Sequencing of Learning in Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Learning to Prioritise and Select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Stress Exposure Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 viii Contents 7 The Complexities of Problem Solving in Mental Health Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 José Hanham Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Diagnostic Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Illustrative Example of a Behavioural Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Clinical Expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Approaches to Obtaining Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Mechanical Prediction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Stress Exposure Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Case-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 8 Design Problem in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Chwee Beng Lee Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 The Engineering Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Design Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 The Risks of Engineering Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Solving Engineering Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Implications for Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Problem-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Model-Eliciting Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Multifaceted Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Creative Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Critical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Part III D esign and Analysis 9 Understanding the Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Chwee Beng Lee and José Hanham Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Analysing Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Analysing Learners for High-Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . 113 General Characteristics and Dynamic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Domains Related to High-Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . 116 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Contents ix 10 Conducting Task Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Chwee Beng Lee Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Types of Task Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Conducting Task Analysis in High-Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . 125 The Case-Based Reasoning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 The Critical Incident/Critical Decision Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11 On the Design of Instruction and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Chwee Beng Lee, Jimmie Leppink, and José Hanham Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Sources of Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Solving Problems in High-Stakes Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Problem-Solving Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Distractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Zone of Proximal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Using Cases in Problem-Solving Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Cases as Problems to Solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Cases as Instructional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Designing Assessments for High-Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . 146 Assessing Performance Through Rubrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Elements of Rubrics to Be Considered for High-Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 12 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Jimmie Leppink Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Three Fundamental Methodological Practices That Need a Change . . . . 156 The Concept of Repeated Measurements Remains Underused . . . . . . 156 Single-Item Measures Continue to Be the Most Used Measures of Cognitive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 The Problematic Assumption of Keeping Loads Constant . . . . . . . . . . 158 Bad Statistical Habits We Should Have Broken Yesterday . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Using Statistically Non-significant Outcomes to ‘Confirm’ the Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Treating Statistically Significant Outcomes in Small Samples as Reflecting ‘Real’ Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 The Continued Use of Cronbach’s Alpha but Not Its More Viable Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 x Contents A Recent Important Development in the Peer-Review and Reporting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Registered Reports as the Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 To Conclude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 13 Conclusion: Future Considerations for Designing Instructions in High- Stakes Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Jimmie Leppink, Chwee Beng Lee, and José Hanham Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Emergency Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Mental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Learner and Task Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Designing Instruction and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Future Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

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