INSECT POLLINATOR AND WEED ECOLOGY IN A MANGO AGROECOSYSTEM NURUL HUDA BINTI ABDUL UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2016 INSECT POLLINATOR AND WEED ECOLOGY IN A MANGO AGROECOSYSTEM By NURUL HUDA BINTI ABDUL Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2016 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, my utmost gratitude to Allah S.W.T. for all His blessings that enabled me to complete my study. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. Che Salmah Md. Rawi, whose expertise, generous guidance and tireless supervision had made it possible for me to work on this research of my interest. Her immense enthusiasm, critical comments throughout my research undertakings had opened my mind to look at my research in different ways and perspectives. Appreciation is also extended to my co-supervisors Dr. Hamdan Ahmad and Encik Abdul Razak Mohd Nordin for their support especially during the field study. I am indebted to the Dean of School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, for providing transportation facilities and support staff to help me in my research. I like to extend my appreciation to the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perlis Farming Unit and Dean of Faculty of Plantation and Agro-technology UiTM Perlis for their generosity to allow me to work on their mango orchard as my study site. I value greatly the assistance and commitment by all staff members in helping my research. A very special thanks goes to Prof Abu Hassan Ahmad for his keen interest in my research and willingness to review the draft of my thesis. His suggestions had tremendously improved the presentation of this thesis. I am grateful to Prof. Emer. Knut Rognes (Oslo, Norway) who helped me to identify many insect specimens (through digital images) sent to him. Without his help I will still be struggling with several insects that are too difficult for me to name them, within my limitation of knowledge on insect taxonomy. My gratitude also goes to Prof Sarker Mohammad Rezaul Karim (Faculty of Agro-based Industries, UMK) for his willingness to confirm my identification of weeds. Unexpected errors that remain are, of cause entirely my own responsibility. Many thanks to my fellow graduate colleagues; Zul, Dhia, Wani, Mel, Mira, Kak Su, Kak Emeilia, Fakhrul and many others who may not be mentioned here for their helpful insights and good conversations. Our friendships had enriched my experience during my stay in USM. I gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for awarding me a scholarship to pursue my study. I am also thankful for the research grant (awarded to my supervisors) by Universiti Sains Malaysia to carry out this research without which this study would not be possible. Finally, I like to express my eternal gratitude and appreciation to my parents and siblings for their endless support (morally and emotionally) and encouragement and for the freedom given to me to continue my pursuit of knowledge that truly motivates me to complete my study. I doubt that I will be able to convey my gratefulness fully. Thank you all. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES xiii LIST OF PLATES xv LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvii ABSTRAK xviii ABSTRACT xx CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Objectives 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Pollination and pollinator 7 2.2 Pollinators in agricultural ecosystem 12 2.3 Possible causes of pollinator decline 15 2.4 Pollinator in Malaysian agricultural ecosystems 18 2.5 Effect of environmental factors (weather) on pollinators foraging activities and abundances 20 2.6 Measuring pollinator performance 23 2.7 Host plants 25 2.7.1 Target crop - Mango (Mangifera indica Linnaeus) 25 2.7.2 Forage (wild plants) 27 iii CHAPTER 3: SPECIES COMPOSITION OF ANTHOPHILES (INSECT FLOWER VISITORS) ACCORDING TO THEIR MOVEMENT AND BODY SIZE ON MANGO FLOWER PANICLES IN HERBICIDE TREATED AND NON-TREATED PLOT 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Materials and Methods 34 3.2.1 Study Area 34 3.2.2 Mango cultivars 34 3.2.2.1 Chok Anan (MA 224) 34 3.2.2.2 Sala (MA164) 35 3.2.3 Experimental plots 37 3.2.4 Insects sampling 37 3.2.5 Statistical analyses 41 3.2.5.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango panicles 41 3.2.5.2 Temporal variations of anthophiles activities and assemblages on mango flower panicles 41 3.2.5.3 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and size 42 3.2.5.4 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application on mango anthophiles compositions 42 3.3 Results 43 3.3.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango flower panicles 43 3.3.2 Temporal variations on anthophiles activities and assemblages on mango flower panicles 53 3.3.3 Diurnal activity of anthophiles 58 3.3.4 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and size 61 3.3.5 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application on iv mango anthophiles compositions 64 3.3.5.1 Effect of herbicide application on composition of anthophiles on Chok Anan panicles 64 3.3.5.2 Effect of herbicide application on composition of anthophiles on Sala panicles 70 3.4 Discussion 75 3.4.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango flower panicles 75 3.4.2 Seasonal and diurnal activities of anthophiles on mango flower panicles 80 3.4.3 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and size 84 3.4.4 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application on mango anthophiles compositions 87 CHAPTER 4: INSECT-WEED INTERACTION AND ITS IMPLICATION ON SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF INSECTS AND WEEDS IN A MANGO ORCHARD 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Materials and Methods 94 4.2.1 Study area 94 4.2.2 Insects and weed collection 94 4.2.3 Statistical analyses 95 4.3 Results 97 4.3.1 Insects collected on weeds 97 4.3.1.1 Temporal and seasonal variations of insects’ abundances and diversity 99 4.3.2 Weed species 110 4.3.2.1 Temporal and seasonal variation of weed species 112 v 4.3.3 Weeds as a determinant of insect abundance in mango orchard 115 4.4 Discussion 119 4.4.1 Insect population on weeds 119 4.4.2 Weed species 125 4.4.3 Weeds as a determinant of insect abundance in mango orchard 128 CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON WEEDS AND INSECTS POPULATIONS IN MANAGED ORCHARD 5.1 Introduction 132 5.2 Materials and Methods 135 5.2.1 Study Area 135 5.2.2 Measurement of climatic parameters (humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity) 135 5.2.3 Evaluation on effects of environmental factors on weeds and insect population 136 5.2.4 Statistical analyses 136 5.3 Results 138 5.3.1 Seasonal variation of environmental parameters (relative humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity) in mango orchard 138 5.3.2 Temporal variation of environmental parameters; humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity during mango flowering season 140 5.3.1.1 Year 2013 (12 – 28 February 2013) 140 5.3.1.2 Year 2014 (28 January 2014 to 7 March 2014) 142 5.3.3 Effect of environmental parameters (relative humidity, temperature, wind speed and light intensity) on availability of weeds species and on insects population 144 vi 5.3.3.1 Effect of environmental parameters on weeds availability in the orchard 144 5.3.3.2 Effect of environmental parameters on insects distribution on weeds 146 5.3.3.3 Effect of environmental parameters on anthophiles abundance on mango flowers 148 5.4 Discussion 157 5.5.1 Seasonal variation of environmental parameters (relative humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity) in mango orchard 157 5.4.2 Temporal variation of environmental parameters; humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity during mango flowering season 158 5.4.3 Effect of environmental parameters (relative humidity, temperature, wind speed and light intensity) on availability of weeds 162 species and on insects population CHAPTER 6: POLLINATION SERVICES OF MANGO FLOWER POLLINATORS 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Materials and Methods 170 6.2.1. Study Area 170 6.2.2 Assessment of pollinator performance 170 6.2.1.1 Pollination treatments 172 6.2.1.2 Estimation of hermaphrodite flowers on a flower panicle 174 6.2.3 Assessing pollinator’s contribution to plant reproductive success 174 6.2.3.1 Pollinator visitation rate 174 6.2.3.2 Pollen carrying capacity by pollinators 175 vii 6.2.3.3 Pollen atlas 175 6.2.3.4 Estimation of pollen grains 176 6.2.3 Statistical analyses 177 6.3 Results 179 6.3.1 Role of pollinators in mango fruit set 179 6.3.2 Visitation frequency 182 6.3.2 Pollinator behavior 182 6.3.3 Deposition of pollen grains as estimator of pollinator effectiveness 184 6.3.4 Influence of body size of pollinators on pollen carrying capacity 189 6.4 Discussion 192 6.4.1 Role of pollinators in mango fruit set 192 6.4.2 Visitation frequency 195 6.4.3 Deposition of pollen grains as estimator of pollen effectiveness 196 6.4.4 Influenced of body size of pollinator on pollen carrying capacities 199 CHAPTER 7: GENERAL CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION 200 REFERENCES 205 APPENDIX LIST OF PUBLICATIONS viii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 3.1 Composition of anthophiles collected on mango panicles during 2 flowering seasons between 2013 and 2014. 46 Table 3.2a List of beneficial insects (pollinator, predator and parasitoid) genera visiting flower panicles of mango cultivars; Chok Anan and Sala. 47 Table 3.2b List of phytophagous insects (genera) visiting flower panicles of mango cultivars; Chok Anan and Sala. 50 Table 3.3 Abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) and range of families and order of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and Sala flower panicles during two flowering seasons between 2013 and 2014. 53 Table 3.4 Abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) and range of families and orders of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and Sala flower panicles during two flowering seasons. 55 Table 3.5 Dominant genera of anthophiles (attributed to their ecological function) collected on Chok Anan and Sala flower panicles during sampling occasion of two mango flowering seasons between 2013 and 2014. 57 Table 3.6 Hourly abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) of genera, families and orders of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and Sala flower panicles. 59 Table 3.7a List of common beneficial insects (pollinator, predator and parasitoid) genera (≥ 10 individuals collected) according to their habit (flying or crawling) and body size (small < 8 mm ≤ large) on mango panicles during the study. 62 Table 3.7b List of common insect pests (≥ 10 individuals collected) according to their habit (flying or crawling) and body size (small < 8 mm ≤ large) on mango panicles during the study. 63 ix
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