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Information Visualization This page intentionally left blank Information Visualization PERCEPTION FOR DESIGN Third Edition Colin Ware AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO MorganKaufmannisanimprintofElsevier AcquiringEditor:MegDunkerley DevelopmentEditor:HeatherScherer ProjectManager:PaulGottehrer Designer:KristenDavis MorganKaufmannisanimprintofElsevier 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA ©2013Elsevier,Inc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical, includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe publisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandour arrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbe foundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmay benotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour understanding,changesinresearchmethodsorprofessionalpractices,maybecomenecessary.Practitionersandresearchers mustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformationormethodsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,including partiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforany injuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor operationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Ware,Colin. Informationvisualization:perceptionfordesign/ColinWare.–3rd[edition]. pagescm–(Interactivetechnologies) Summary:“Thisisabookaboutwhatthescienceofperceptioncantellusaboutvisualization.Thereisagoldmineof informationabouthowweseetobefoundinmorethanacenturyofworkbyvisionresearchers.Thepurposeofthisbookis toextractfromthatlargebodyofresearchliteraturethosedesignprinciplesthatapplytodisplayinginformation effectively”–Providedbypublisher. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-12-381464-7(hardback) 1.Visualperception.2.Visualization.3.Informationvisualization. I.Title. BF241.W342012 152.14–dc23 2012009489 BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. ForinformationonallMKpublications visitourwebsiteatwww.mkp.com PrintedinChina 12 13 14 15 16 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typesetby:diacriTech,Chennai,India Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................xv About the Author............................................................................................................xxi Chapter 1 Foundations for an Applied Science of Data Visualization..................................1 VisualizationStages..................................................................................................................4 Experimental SemioticsBased onPerception.......................................................................5 Semiotics ofGraphics...............................................................................................................6 ArePicturesArbitrary?......................................................................................................7 SensoryversusArbitrarySymbols.........................................................................................9 Properties ofSensoryRepresentation................................................................................12 TestingClaims aboutSensoryRepresentations................................................................15 Representations ThatAreArbitrary.................................................................................15 TheStudyofArbitrary ConventionalSymbols................................................................17 Gibson’sAffordanceTheory.................................................................................................17 AModelofPerceptual Processing.......................................................................................20 Stage1.ParallelProcessing toExtractLow-Level Propertiesofthe VisualScene.........21 Stage2.PatternPerception...............................................................................................21 Stage3.VisualWorkingMemory....................................................................................22 Attention............................................................................................................................22 Costs andBenefitsofVisualization.....................................................................................23 TypesofData..........................................................................................................................25 Entities...............................................................................................................................26 Relationships......................................................................................................................26 Attributes ofEntities orRelationships..............................................................................26 Data Dimensions: 1D,2D,3D,… .................................................................................26 TypesofNumbers..............................................................................................................27 Uncertainty........................................................................................................................28 Operations ConsideredasData.........................................................................................28 Metadata...................................................................................................................................29 Conclusion................................................................................................................................29 Chapter 2 The Environment, Optics, Resolution, and the Display.....................................31 The Environment.....................................................................................................................32 Visible Light.......................................................................................................................32 Ecological Optics...............................................................................................................32 Optical Flow......................................................................................................................34 TexturedSurfacesandTextureGradients........................................................................35 ThePaintModel ofSurfaces.............................................................................................36 The Eye.....................................................................................................................................41 TheVisualAngleDefined.................................................................................................42 vi Contents Lens....................................................................................................................................43 OpticsandAugmented-RealitySystems..........................................................................44 OpticsinVirtual-Reality Displays...................................................................................47 ChromaticAberration........................................................................................................48 Receptors............................................................................................................................49 SimpleAcuities..................................................................................................................50 AcuityDistribution andtheVisualField.........................................................................52 BrainPixelsandtheOptimalScreen...............................................................................55 SpatialContrast SensitivityFunction..............................................................................59 VisualStress......................................................................................................................62 The OptimalDisplay..............................................................................................................63 Aliasing..............................................................................................................................64 Numberof Dots.................................................................................................................66 SuperacuitiesandDisplays...............................................................................................66 TemporalRequirementsofthePerfect Display................................................................67 Conclusion................................................................................................................................68 Chapter 3 Lightness, Brightness, Contrast, and Constancy................................................69 Neurons, Receptive Fields,and BrightnessIllusions........................................................70 SimultaneousBrightnessContrast....................................................................................73 MachBands.......................................................................................................................74 TheChevreulIllusion........................................................................................................74 SimultaneousContrastandErrorsinReadingMaps......................................................75 ContrastEffects andArtifacts in ComputerGraphics.....................................................75 EdgeEnhancement............................................................................................................76 Luminance, Brightness,Lightness,and Gamma................................................................79 Constancies........................................................................................................................79 Luminance..........................................................................................................................80 DisplayingDetails.............................................................................................................82 Brightness..........................................................................................................................82 MonitorGamma................................................................................................................83 Adaptation,Contrast, andLightnessConstancy..............................................................84 ContrastandConstancy....................................................................................................85 ContrastonPaperandonScreen.....................................................................................85 Perception ofSurface Lightness............................................................................................87 LightnessDifferences andtheGrayScale........................................................................88 ContrastCrispening..........................................................................................................89 Monitor Illuminationand MonitorSurrounds...................................................................90 Conclusion................................................................................................................................93 Chapter 4 Color.....................................................................................................................95 Trichromacy Theory...............................................................................................................96 ColorBlindness..................................................................................................................98 ColorMeasurement................................................................................................................98 ChangeofPrimaries........................................................................................................100 Contents vii Chromaticity Coordinates................................................................................................102 ColorDifferences andUniformColorSpaces.................................................................105 Opponent ProcessTheory....................................................................................................108 Naming............................................................................................................................108 Cross-Cultural Naming...................................................................................................109 UniqueHues....................................................................................................................109 Neurophysiology..............................................................................................................110 CategoricalColors............................................................................................................110 PropertiesofColorChannels..............................................................................................111 Spatial Sensitivity............................................................................................................111 StereoscopicDepth...........................................................................................................112 MotionSensitivity...........................................................................................................112 Form.................................................................................................................................113 ColorAppearance.................................................................................................................114 MonitorSurrounds..........................................................................................................114 ColorConstancy..............................................................................................................114 ColorContrast.................................................................................................................115 Saturation........................................................................................................................116 Brown...............................................................................................................................117 Applications ofColorinVisualization..............................................................................117 Application 1:ColorSpecificationInterfaces and ColorSpaces...................................117 ColorSpaces.....................................................................................................................118 ColorNaming Systems....................................................................................................120 ColorPalettes...................................................................................................................122 Application 2:ColorforLabeling (NominalCodes).......................................................122 Application 3:ColorSequencesforData Maps...............................................................128 FormandQuantity.........................................................................................................129 Interval Pseudocolor Sequences.......................................................................................132 RatioPseudocolors...........................................................................................................132 SequencesfortheColorBlind.........................................................................................133 Bivariate ColorSequences...............................................................................................134 Application 4:ColorReproduction....................................................................................135 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................138 Chapter 5 Visual Salience and Finding Information..........................................................139 EyeMovements.....................................................................................................................140 Accommodation................................................................................................................142 TheEyeMovementControlLoop...................................................................................142 V1,Channels,andTunedReceptors..................................................................................143 TheElements ofForm.....................................................................................................145 TheGaborModelandVisualDistinctness.....................................................................147 ADifferencingMechanismforFineDiscrimination......................................................149 FeatureMaps,Channels,andLessonsforVisualSearch..............................................150 Preattentive ProcessingandEaseofSearch.....................................................................152 Attention andExpectations.............................................................................................156 Highlighting andAsymmetries.......................................................................................157 viii Contents CodingwithCombinationsof Features...........................................................................158 CodingwithRedundantProperties................................................................................159 WhatIs NotEasily Findable:ConjunctionsofFeatures................................................159 HighlightingTwoData Dimensions: ConjunctionsThatCanBeSeen........................160 Integral andSeparable Dimensions:GlyphDesign........................................................162 RestrictedClassification Tasks........................................................................................163 SpeededClassification Tasks...........................................................................................164 Integral–SeparableDimension Pairs...............................................................................167 Representing Quantity.........................................................................................................168 RepresentingAbsoluteQuantities..................................................................................169 MultidimensionalDiscreteData:Uniform Representation versus MultipleChannels...........................................................................................170 StarsandWhiskers..........................................................................................................172 The SearchlightMetaphor andCorticalMagnification..................................................173 UsefulFieldofView........................................................................................................173 TunnelVision, Stress,andCognitiveLoad....................................................................173 TheRole ofMotionin AttractingAttention..................................................................174 MotionasaUserInterrupt.............................................................................................174 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................176 Chapter 6 Static and Moving Patterns...............................................................................179 Gestalt Laws..........................................................................................................................181 Proximity.........................................................................................................................181 Similarity.........................................................................................................................182 Connectedness..................................................................................................................183 Continuity........................................................................................................................183 Symmetry.........................................................................................................................185 ClosureandCommonRegion.........................................................................................186 FigureandGround..........................................................................................................189 MoreonContours...........................................................................................................191 RepresentingVectorFields:PerceivingOrientation andDirection..............................193 Comparing2DFlowVisualization Techniques..............................................................194 ShowingDirection...........................................................................................................196 Texture: TheoryandData Mapping..................................................................................199 Tradeoffsin Information Density:An UncertaintyPrinciple.......................................201 PrimaryPerceptual DimensionsofTexture...................................................................202 TextureContrastEffects..................................................................................................202 OtherDimensionsofVisualTexture..............................................................................203 NominalTextureCodes...................................................................................................204 UsingTexturesforUnivariateandMultivariate MapDisplays...................................205 Quantitative TextureSequences.....................................................................................209 Perception ofTransparency: Overlapping Data..............................................................211 Perceiving Patternsin MultidimensionalDiscrete Data.................................................213 PatternLearning....................................................................................................................218 Priming............................................................................................................................220 Vigilance..........................................................................................................................220 The VisualGrammar ofNode–LinkDiagrams................................................................221 Contents ix The VisualGrammarofMaps............................................................................................227 Patterns inMotion................................................................................................................229 FormandContourin Motion.........................................................................................231 MovingFrames................................................................................................................232 Expressive Motion...........................................................................................................233 Perception ofCausality....................................................................................................233 Perception ofAnimatedMotion.........................................................................................235 Enriching DiagramswithSimpleAnimation.................................................................236 The ProcessesofPatternFinding.......................................................................................236 Chapter 7 Space Perception.................................................................................................239 Depth CueTheory................................................................................................................240 Perspective Cues..............................................................................................................241 TheDuality ofDepthPerceptioninPictures.................................................................242 PicturesSeenfromtheWrongViewpoint......................................................................244 Occlusion.........................................................................................................................246 Shape-from-Shading.........................................................................................................247 ShadingModels...............................................................................................................248 Cushion Maps..................................................................................................................249 SurfaceTexture................................................................................................................250 CastShadows...................................................................................................................253 Distance BasedonFamiliarSize.....................................................................................255 Depth ofFocus.................................................................................................................255 EyeAccommodation........................................................................................................256 Structure-from-Motion....................................................................................................256 EyeConvergence..............................................................................................................258 StereoscopicDepth...........................................................................................................258 ProblemswithStereoscopicDisplays..............................................................................260 Frame Cancellation..........................................................................................................261 TheVergence–FocusProblem.........................................................................................261 Distant Objects................................................................................................................262 MakingEffective StereoscopicDisplays..........................................................................262 Cyclopean Scale...............................................................................................................264 VirtualEyeSeparation....................................................................................................264 Artificial SpatialCues.....................................................................................................266 Depth CuesinCombination...............................................................................................269 Task-BasedSpacePerception..............................................................................................272 TracingData Pathsin 3DGraphs......................................................................................272 JudgingtheMorphologyofSurfaces.................................................................................276 Conformal Textures.........................................................................................................277 Guidelines forDisplaying Surfaces.................................................................................280 Bivariate Maps–LightingandSurfaceColor..................................................................281 Patterns ofPoints in3DSpace............................................................................................282 PerceivingPatterns in3D Trajectories...............................................................................283 JudgingRelativePositions ofObjectsin Space................................................................284 JudgingtheRelativeMovementsofSelf withintheEnvironment...............................285
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