Influences on preschoolers' altruism. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.

293 Pages·2017·17.27 MB·English

by  Christine Middleton

Influences on preschoolers}
altruism
Ellie Limback
Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy
June 2011
Abstract
There has been a resurgence of interest in prosocial behaviour in recent years, but many
authors avoid the topic of altruism due to the difficulty of discerning the motives behind
the behaviour. The present thesis takes a behavioural definition of altruism (Le. that the
point of interest is the altruistic action rather than the underlying motives) and employs a
paradigm from experimental economics that minimises the impact of motivating factors
aside from altruism: the dictator game. Preschool children's emerging altruistic behaviour is
assessed and the norms governing this behaviour are hypothesised. Chapter 1 gives an
introduction to prosocial behaviour in general, before focussing on altruism and the
dictator game. It demonstrates that while behaviour in older children and adults is
influenced by numerous intrinsic and extrinsic factors, little is known about influences on
the altruistic and dictator game behaviour of preschool children. Chapter 2 conducts a
standard DGwith 4-5 year-old children with particular focus on the influence of siblings. It
also examines the impact of endowment size, providing a reduced endowment in order to
ascertain whether children's understanding of the numerosities involved influences dictator
game behaviour. There was no effect of endowment size upon DG behaviour, but sibling
status was found to influence donations, with children with older siblings being more likely
to donate than those without older siblings. These results are discussed in terms of models
of sibling influence. Chapter 3 extends these findings by examining whether adults behave
similarly to children and whether the influence of older siblings remains in adulthood. A
shift in the influence of siblings was observed, with adults with siblings being more
generous than those without siblings, rather than older siblings in particular being
beneficial. How these findings further inform models of sibling influence is discussed.
Chapter 4 examines how the source of the endowment influences preschoolers' altruistic
behaviour in the dictator game by asking children to earn their endowments rather than
provide them as a windfall. While previous work has shown that adults are less generous
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when they have earned their endowment than when it is a windfall, children showed little
difference in behaviour according to the source of their endowment, although there is
evidence to suggest that children with older siblings are beginning to internalise the
relevant norms (otherwise there was no effect of sibling status). Chapter 5 examines the
effect of framing upon children's altruistic behaviour by providing different information
about the recipient (rather than no information as is standard in the DG). Children gave
more to a recipient with positive characteristics than one with negative characteristics and
were also influenced by the mere possession of information. Chapter 6 sums up by
demonstrating how these findings interact to inform our understanding of preschoolers'
altruistic behaviour and outlines areas for future research. Altogether, this thesis
demonstrates that there are numerous influences on preschoolers' altruistic behaviour but
children are nonetheless similarly altruistic to adults rather than more selfish, as is often
assumed.
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Conference presentations
Work from this thesis was presented at the following conferences:
Social Cognition Workshop, University of Nottingham (November 2009) - The development
of altruism: the endowment effect
BPS Developmental Psychology Section Conference, Nottingham Trent University
(September 2009) - The impact of siblings upon the development of altruism
Social Cognition Workshop, University of Birmingham (June, 2009) - The development of
altruism
Society for Research in Child Development Biennial Meeting, Denver CO (April 2009) - The
development of altruism
Theory of Mind Workshop, University of Birmingham (June 2008) - Theory of mind and the
development of altruism
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Acknowledgements
Thanks should first and foremost go to the participants in these studies. To the children,
their families, their schools and, of course, the adults who also took part: thank you for
giving up your valuable time, this thesis would not have been possible without you and Iam
very grateful for your support. Ihope you enjoyed taking part asmuch as Ienjoyed meeting
you all.
Particular thanks should go to my primary supervisor Dr Dana Samson. Dana thank you so
much for all your time, energy and patience, I am so lucky to have had such a wonderful
supervisor. You have taught me so much over the last few years and I could not have
achieved this without your endless encouragement. I would also like to thank my second
supervisor, Dr Nikki Pitchford. You have been a source of advice and support ever since I
was an undergraduate and Iwould not be where Iam now without you. Thank you both for
being my teachers and my friends.
My friends Emma, Maria, Jo and Jette - I want to thank you for making my PhD such an
enjoyable time. Thank you for all of the philosophical discussions about the nature of
altruism, aswell asour chats about statistics and, of course, stickers. You made our office a
place of laughter and fun. To my family, most of all to my parents, Iam sovery grateful for
your encouragement, patience and unwavering belief in me. Thanks also for never
complaining despite the incessant phone calls asking "what's another way of saying..." and
for understanding how important it isto get the right word! Iwould never have got through
the last few years without you.
My PhDwas financially supported by the ESRC.
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Table of contents
Abstract .......................................................•.•......•..................................•....•..••.....••.•... ii
Conference presentations .•.......••.........•.•....................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements .......•....••...•.........•........................................................................••.. v
Table of contents ....................................•....................................................••..•.......•..... vi
Table of figures ....••...••...••.......•.........•..........•..............................................................•.. xi
Tableof tables •...•..........•...••........••.........•......•......••...........................•••.....................•. xiii
Tableof appendices ...•••..••..•.....•...•....••...•••...•............................•.•••..........••.••..•..........• xvi
Chapter 1:General introduction 1
1.1 Prosocialbehaviour 2
1.1.1 Prosocialdevelopment 2
1.1.2 Influenceson prosocial behaviour 6
1.1.2.1 Intrinsic influences on prosocial behaviour 6
1.1.2.2 Extrinsicinfluences on prosocial behaviour 10
1.2 Altruism 14
1.2.1 Defining altruism 15
1.2.2 Explainingaltruism 16
1.2.3 Assessmentof altruism 19
1.3 Thedictator game 21
1.3.1 Influenceson DGbehaviour 23
1.3.1.1 Demographicvariables 23
1.3.1.2 Cultural variables 27
1.3.1.3 Methodological variables 28
1.3.1.4 Descriptive variables 30
1.3.1.5 Structural variables 33
1.3.2 Criticismsof the DG 34
1.3.3 TheDGasameasureof altruism 37
1.4 Aimsof the thesis 41
Chapter 2:Sibling status andthe dictator game in preschool children 44
2.1 Introduction 44
2.1.1 Theinfluence of siblings 44
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2.1.2 Thedictator gameasameasureof altruism inchildren 51
2.1.3 Mechanismsof sibling influence 52
2.1.4 Confounding variableson altruism inthe DG 56
2.1.5 Presentstudy 59
2.2 Methods 62
2.2.1 Participants 62
2.2.2 Procedure 63
2.2.2.1 DG 63
2.2.2.2 Mathematical ability 66
2.2.2.3 ToM tasks 66
2.3 Results 69
2.3.1 Mathematical ability 69
2.3.2 ToM ability 69
2.3.3 Prosocialbehaviour 71
2.3.3.1 Endowment size 72
2.3.3.2 Gender 74
2.3.3.3 Siblingeffect 7S
2.3.3.4 Confoundingvariables 78
2.4 Discussion 82
2.4.1 Overallaltruistic behaviour 82
2.4.2 Siblingstatus 84
2.4.3 Confoundingvariables 89
2.4.4 Mechanismsof siblinginfluence 92
Chapter 3:Siblingstatus and the dictator game inadults 97
3.1 Introduction 97
3.1.1 Theinfluence of siblingsinadults 97
3.1.2 Mechanismsof sibling influence 102
3.1.3 ComparingDGbehaviour inadults andchildren 103
3.1.4 Confounding variables 107
3.1.5 Presentstudy 110
3.2 Methods 112
3.2.1 Participants 112
3.2.2 Procedure 112
3.2.2.1 Dictator game 113
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3.2.2.2 Questionnaires 113
3.3 Results 115
3.3.1 Interpersonal ReactivityIndex 115
3.3.2 Prosocialbehaviour 117
3.3.2.1 Gender 118
3.3.2.2 Siblingstatus 118
3.3.2.3 Confoundingvariables 121
3.3.3 Age:adults andchildren 123
3.3.3.1 Siblingstatus andage 124
3.4 Discussion 125
3.4.1 Overallaltruistic behaviour inadults 125
3.4.2 Confoundingvariablesinadults 128
3.4.3 Siblingstatus 130
3.4.4 Mechanismsof sibling influence 134
Chapter 4:Theinfluence of earning the DGendowment in preschool children 138
4.1 Introduction 138
4.1.1 Windfall andearned resources 138
4.1.2 Earningandthe DG 139
4.1.3 Influenceof earning inchildren 141
4.1.4 Presentstudy 143
4.2 Methods 144
4.2.1 Participants 144
4.2.2 Procedure 145
4.2.2.1 Earningphase 146
4.2.2.2 DG 148
4.3 Results 150
4.3.1 ClassicDG 150
4.3.1.1 Gender 151
4.3.1.2 Siblingstatus 152
4.3.2 EarningDG 152
4.3.2.1 Prosocialbehaviour 152
4.3.2.2 Gender 152
4.3.2.3 Siblingstatus 153
4.3.2.4 Confounding variables 155
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4.3.3 Effectofearningthe endowment.. 157
4.3.4 Summaryof results 158
4.4 Discussion 160
4.4.1 Earningeffect 160
4.4.2 Confoundingvariablesinthe EarningDG 164
Chapter 5:The influence of recipient deservingness in preschool children 168
5.1 Introduction 168
5.1.1 Reputationandreciprocity 168
5.1.2 DGandrecipientcharacteristicsinadults 169
5.1.3 Information aboutthe recipientinchildren 171
5.1.4 Presentstudy 172
5.2 Methods 174
5.2.1 Participants 174
5.2.2 Procedure 175
5.2.2.1 DG 175
5.2.2.2 Mathstasks 177
5.2.2.3 ToMtasks 177
5.3 Results 178
5.3.1 Deservingnesseffect 178
5.3.1.1 Gender 182
5.3.1.2 Siblingstatus 185
5.3.1.3 Confoundingvariables 186
5.3.2 Possessionof information 189
5.3.2.1 Gender 191
5.3.2.2 Siblingstatus 196
5.3.3 Summaryof results 200
5.4 Discussion 202
5.4.1 Reputation 202
5.4.2 Possessionof information 20S
Chapter 6:General discussion •••.•••••.•••••••••....••••••...•...•.....••....•••••••...•••.••••..•......•...•.•...• 213
6.1 Summaryof findings 213
6.2 Theinfluenceof siblingsuponaltruistic behaviourinthe DG 214
6.3 Theinfluenceofgenderuponaltruistic behaviourinthe DG 218
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6.4 Other influences on altruistic behaviour in the DG 220
6.5 Useof preschool children 222
6.6 Dealing with DGdata 223
6.7 Informing theories of prosociality and altruism 224
6.8 Onwards from altruism: future directions 227
References 230
Appendices 255
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