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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Series Editor-in-Chief: Robert A. Meyers Lester M. Shulman Editor Infectious Diseases Second Edition A Volume in the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, Second Edition Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Series Editor-in-Chief RobertA.Meyers The Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology series (ESST) addresses the grand challenge for science and engineering today. It provides unprecedented, peer-reviewed coverage in more than 600 separate articles comprising 20 topical volumes, incorporating many updates from the first edition as well as new articles. ESSTestablishes a foundation for the many sustainability and policy evaluations being performed in institutions worldwide. An indispensable resource for scientistsandengineers indeveloping new technologies and for applying existing technologies to sustainability, the EncyclopediaofSustainabilityScienceandTechnologyseriesispresentedat theuniversityandprofessionallevelneededforscientists,engineers,andtheir studentstosupportrealprogressinsustainabilityscienceandtechnology. Althoughtheemphasisisonscienceandtechnologyratherthanpolicy,the EncyclopediaofSustainabilityScienceandTechnologyseriesisalsoacompre- hensiveandauthoritativeresourceforpolicymakerswhowanttounderstandthe scopeofresearchanddevelopmentandhowthesebottom-upinnovationsmap ontothesustainabilitychallenge. Lester M. Shulman Editor Infectious Diseases Second Edition A Volume in the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, Second Edition With91Figuresand29Tables Editor LesterM.Shulman DepartmentofEpidemiologyandPreventiveMedicine,SchoolofPublic Health,SacklerFacultyofMedicine TelAvivUniversity TelAviv,Israel CentralVirologyLaboratory,LaboratoryofEnvironmental VirologyatShebaMedicalCenter;Retired PublicHealthServices,IsraelMinistryofHealth TelAviv,Israel ISSN2629-2378 ISSN2629-2386(electronic) EncyclopediaofSustainabilityScienceandTechnologySeries ISBN978-1-0716-2462-3 ISBN978-1-0716-2463-0(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2463-0 ©SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC,partofSpringerNature2013,2023 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeor part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway, andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,or bysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthis bookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernorthe authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwith regardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerScience+BusinessMedia, LLC,partofSpringerNature. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:1NewYorkPlaza,NewYork,NY10004,U.S.A. Series Preface Our nearly 1000-member team recognizes that all elements of sustainability scienceandtechnologycontinuetoadvanceasdoesourunderstandingofthe needs for water, clean air, food, energy, and health and the relation of every singleaspectofthisvastbodyofknowledgetoclimatechange.OurEncyclo- pedia content is at a level for university students, professors, engineers, and other practicing professionals. It is gratifying for our team to note that our online First Edition has been heavily utilized as evidenced by over 500,000 downloadswhichofcourseisinadditiontoscientists’utilizationoftheprint Encyclopediaandprintsinglevolumes.NowwearepleasedtohaveaLiving Reference availableon-line,whichassuresthesustainabilitycommunitythat we are providing the latest peer-reviewed content covering the science and technology of the sustainability of the earth and we are also publishing the content as a series of individual topical books for easy use by those with an interest in particular subjects. Our team covers the physical, chemical, and biologicalprocessesandmeasurementsthatunderlietheearthsysteminclud- ingpollutionandremediation,healthandclimatechangeandwecomprehen- sivelycovereveryenergyandenvironmenttechnologyaswellasalltypesof foodproduction,water,transportation,andthesustainablebuiltenvironment. Our team members include two Nobel Prize winners (McFaddden and Fischlin), two former Directors of the NSF (Colwell and Killeen), and the ChiefScientistoftheRockyMountainInstitute(Lovins).Andourmorethan 50 eminent section editors and now book editors assure the quality of our selectedauthorsandtheirreviewpresentations. Theextentofourcoverageclearlysetsourprojectapartfromotherpubli- cationswhichnowexist,bothinextentanddepth.Infact,currentcompendia ofthescienceandtechnologyofseveralofthesetopicsdonotpresentlyexist, and yetthe content iscrucialtoany evaluation and planning for the sustain- abilityoftheearth.Itisimportanttonotethattheemphasisofourprojectison scienceandtechnologyandnotonpolicyandpositions.Rather,policymakers will use our presentations to evaluate sustainability options. Vital scientific issuesinclude:humanandanimalecologicalsupportsystems;energysupply and effects; the planet’s climate system; systems of agriculture, industry, forestry, and fisheries and the ocean, fresh water and human communities, wastedisposal,transportation,andthebuiltenvironmentaswellasinfectious diseasesandthevarioussystemsonwhichtheydepend;andthebalanceofall ofthesewithsustainability.Inthiscontext,sustainabilityisacharacteristicofa v vi SeriesPreface process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely even as globalpopulationincreasesfrom7.7billionin2021to9.7billionby2050and 11billionbyaround2100(UNEstimate).Thispopulationgrowthisexpected mostly in Africa and India and Southeast Asia, and the hope for decreasing malnutrition coupled with better diet, decreasing poverty, and an increase in wealthimpliessomethinglikea50%increaseinfooddemandbyasearlyas 2030.ButtheUNforecaststhatifrecenttrendscontinue,thenumberofpeople affected by hunger will surpass 840 million by 2030. If the world economy grows at an average of a nominal 3% per annum, there will be more than a doublinginsizeby2050.Thismeansthatglobalproductionofconcrete,steel, andothermetalsaswellasplastics,whichpresentlymakeupnearlyathirdof all greenhouse emissions, will also likely double. The building of new or expanded cities, bridges, roads, dams, and manufacturing plants and the construction of sea walls and pumping capacity for climate adaptation as wellasairconditioningwillberequired. This means that there are going to be some real problems in reducing or morelikelyevenslowingthegrowthofgreenhousegasemissionsaswellas for energy, agriculture, and water. It is increasingly clear that conflicting demandsamongbiofuels,foodcrops, forestation, andenvironmentalprotec- tionwillbedifficulttoreconcile.The“greenrevolution”washeavilydepen- dent on fertilizers which are manufactured using increasingly expensive and diminishing reserves of fossil fuels. In addition, about 70% of available freshwaterisusedforagriculture.Clearly,manynaturalresourceswilleither becomedepletedorscarcerelativetopopulation.Allofthishighlightstheneed for the technology and science presented in this book series as well as truly majorincreasesinresearchanddevelopment. PalmDesert,CA,USA RobertA.Meyers,Ph.D. December2022 Editor-in-Chief Contents InfectiousDiseases:Introduction ........................... 1 LesterM.Shulman InfectiousDiseaseModeling ............................... 9 AngelaR.McLean BiologicalControlsandStandardsfortheStudyand ControlofInfectiousDiseases .............................. 21 PhilipDavidMinor Next-GenerationSequencingintheStudyofInfectious Diseases ............................................... 35 NetaS.ZuckermanandLesterM.Shulman InfectiousDiseases,VibrationalSpectroscopicApproaches toRapidDiagnostics ..................................... 57 JeremyD.DriskellandRalphA.Tripp SyndromicSurveillanceofInfectiousDiseases ................ 75 AharonaGlatman-FreedmanandZalmanKaufman AntibioticsforEmergingPathogens ......................... 83 VinayakAgarwalandSatishK.Nair ClimateChangeEffectsonInfectiousDiseases ................ 99 MatthewBaylisandClaireRisley MalariaVaccines ........................................ 123 MatthewB.LaurensandChristopherV.Plowe SustainableRadicalCureoftheLatentMalarias .............. 155 J.KevinBaird WaterbornePlantVirusesofImportanceinAgriculture ........ 175 WalterQ.Betancourt Water-,Sanitation-,andHygiene-RelatedDiseases ............. 189 Y.Velleman,L.Blair,F.Fleming,andA.Fenwick HIV/AIDSGlobalEpidemic ............................... 221 PhyllisJ.KankiandCatherineK.Koofhethile vii viii Contents PolioandItsEpidemiology ................................ 251 LesterM.Shulman Tuberculosis,Epidemiologyof ............................. 325 GiovanniSotgiu,MatteoZignol,andMarioC.Raviglione PaleopathologyofInfectiousHumanDiseases ................. 347 M.Spigelman AvianOncogenicandImmunosuppressiveViruses ............. 363 IritDavidson SalmonellainPoultryandOtherBirds ...................... 383 AvishaiLublinandYigalFarnoushi CampylobacterinPoultryandOtherBirds ................... 417 AvishaiLublinandYigalFarnoushi NewcastleDiseaseVirus .................................. 427 RuthHaddas Vector-BorneDiseasesinRuminants ........................ 441 AdiBehar,DanielYasur-Landau,and MonicaLeszkowicz-Mazuz Index .................................................. 469 About the Editor-in-Chief Robert A. Meyers Dr. Meyers was manager of EnergyandEnvironmentalProjectsatTRW(now NorthropGrumman)inRedondoBeach,CA,and is now president of RAMTECH Limited. He is coinventoroftheGravimeltprocessfordesulfuri- zationanddemineralizationofcoalforairpollution andwaterpollutioncontrolandwasmanagerofthe DepartmentofEnergyproject,leadingtothecon- struction and successful operation of a first-of-a- kind Gravimelt Process Integrated Test Plant. Dr.Meyersistheinventorofandwasprojectman- agerfortheDoE-sponsoredMagnetohydrodynam- icsSeedRegenerationProject,whichhasresulted in the construction and successful operation of a pilot plant for productionofpotassium formate,a chemicalutilizedforplasmaelectricitygeneration and air pollution control. He also managed TRW effortsinmagnetohydrodynamicselectricitygener- atingcombustorandplasmachanneldevelopment. Dr.Meyersmanagedthepilot-scaleDoEprojectfor determiningthehydrodynamicsofsyntheticfuels. He is a coinventor of several thermo-oxidative stablepolymerswhichhaveachievedcommercial success such as the GE PEI, Upjohn Polyimides, and Rhone-Poulenc bismaleimide resins. He has alsomanagedprojectsforphotochemistry,chemical lasers, flue gas scrubbing, oil shale analysis and refining, petroleum analysis and refining, global change measurement from space satellites, analysis and mitigation (carbon dioxide and ozone), hydrometallurgical refining, soil and hazardouswasteremediation,novelpolymerssyn- thesis, modeling ofthe economics ofspace trans- portationsystems,spacerigidizablestructures,and chemiluminescence-baseddevices. ix