Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook PDF
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Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook Frank Woodard, Ph.D., P.E., President Copyright © 2001 by Butterworth–Heinemann A member of the Reed Elsevier group All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Butterworth–Heinemann prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Butterworth–Heinemann supports the efforts of American Forests and the Global ReLeaf program in its campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our environment. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Woodard, Frank, 1939 Industrial waste treatment handbook/Frank Woodard p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 0-7506-7317-6 1. Factory and trade waste—Management—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage—Purification—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Industries—Environmental TD897.W67 2000] 628.4—dc21 00-044448 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Butterworth–Heinemann 225 Wildwood Avenue Woburn, MA 01801-2041 Tel: 781-904-2500 Fax: 781-904-2620 For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.bh.com 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America v Dedication To Dr. James C. Buzzell, whose fascinating anecdotes lured me into this profession; Dr. Otis J. Sproul, by whose example I became accustomed to and enjoyed hard work and a scholarly approach to life; Dr. James E. Etzel, by whose example I developed an insatiable desire to figure out better ways to achieve treatment of industrial wastes; and my (almost) lifelong best friend, Jean McNeary Woodard, who deserves much of the credit for the existence of this book. 1 Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 1 .................... 1.1 Management of Industrial Wastewater 1 ................................................................................ 1.2 O&M Costs 10 ........................................................................................................................... 1.3 Management of Solid Wastes from Industries 18 ..................................................................... 1.4 Management of Discharges to the Air 20 .................................................................................. 1.5 Bibliography 28 ......................................................................................................................... 2 Fundamentals 29 .................................................................................................... 2.1 Introduction 29 .......................................................................................................................... 2.2 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 29 .............................................................................. 2.3 The Polar Properties of Water 30 ............................................................................................. 2.4 Electrical and Thermodynamic Stability 33 ............................................................................... 2.5 Chemical Structure and Polarity of Water 36 ............................................................................ 2.6 Hydrogen Bonding 37 ............................................................................................................... 2.7 Polar Solvents versus Nonpolar Solvents � True Solutions 38 .................................................. 2.8 Emulsification 40 ....................................................................................................................... 2.9 Colloidal Suspensions 43 .......................................................................................................... 2.10 Mixtures Made Stable by Chelating Agents 44 ....................................................................... 2.11 Summary 44 ............................................................................................................................ 2.12 Examples 45 ........................................................................................................................... 2.13 Bibliography 48 ....................................................................................................................... 3 Laws and Regulations 49 ....................................................................................... 3.1 Introduction 49 .......................................................................................................................... 3.2 History of Permitting and Reporting 49 ..................................................................................... 3.3 Requirements 49 ....................................................................................................................... 3.4 Water Pollution Control Laws 50 ............................................................................................... 3.5 Groundwater Pollution Control Laws 52 ................................................................................... 3.6 Air Pollution Control Laws 55 .................................................................................................... 3.7 Bibliography 60 ......................................................................................................................... 4 Wastes from Industries 61 ..................................................................................... 4.1 Chemical Descaling 61 ............................................................................................................. 4.2 Degreasing 62 ........................................................................................................................... 4.3 Rinsing 64 ................................................................................................................................. 4.4 Electroplating of Tin 65 ............................................................................................................. 4.5 The Copper Forming Industry 74 .............................................................................................. 4.6 Prepared Frozen Foods 77 ....................................................................................................... 4.7 Wastes From De-inking 86 ....................................................................................................... 4.8 Die Casting: Aluminum, Zinc, and Magnesium 93 .................................................................... 4.9 Anodizing and Alodizing 99 ....................................................................................................... 4.10 Production and Processing of Coke 103 ................................................................................... 4.11 The Wine-Making Industry 107 ................................................................................................. 4.12 The Synthetic Rubber Industry 110 .......................................................................................... 4.13 The Soft Drink Bottling Industry 119 ......................................................................................... 4.14 Production and Processing of Beef, Pork, and Other Sources of Red Meat 124 ..................... 4.15 Rendering of By-Products from the Processing of Meat, Poultry, and Fish 130 ....................... 4.16 The Manufacture of Lead Acid Batteries 138 ............................................................................ 4.17 Bibliography 144 ....................................................................................................................... 5 Industrial Stormwater Management 149 ................................................................. 5.1 General 149 ................................................................................................................................ 5.2 Federal Stormwater Regulations 149 ......................................................................................... 5.3 Prevention of Groundwater Contamination 151 .......................................................................... 5.4 Stormwater Segregation, Collection, Retention, and Treatment 152 .......................................... 5.5 Design Storm 152 ....................................................................................................................... 5.6 System Failure Protection 153 .................................................................................................... 5.7 Stormwater Retention 153 .......................................................................................................... 5.8 Stormwater Treatment 153 ......................................................................................................... 5.9 Stormwater as a Source of Process Water Makeup 154 ............................................................ 5.10 Bibliography 165 ....................................................................................................................... 6 Wastes Characterization: The Wastes Characterization Study, Wastes Audit, and the Environmental Audit 166 .................................................................... 6.1 Wastes Characterization Study 166 ............................................................................................ 6.2 Wastes Audit 169 ........................................................................................................................ 6.3 Environmental Audit 172 ............................................................................................................. 6.4 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 179 .............................................................................. 6.5 Characteristics of Discharges to the Air 192 ............................................................................... 6.6 Sample Analysis 198 .................................................................................................................. 6.7 Ambient Air Sampling 198 .......................................................................................................... 6.8 Characteristics of Solid Waste Streams from Industries 201 ...................................................... 6.9 Bibliography 205 ......................................................................................................................... 7 Pollution Prevention 208 .......................................................................................... Findings and Policy 208 .................................................................................................................... 7.1 General Approach 209 ................................................................................................................ 7.2 Source Reduction 212 ................................................................................................................ 7.3 The Waste Audit 215 .................................................................................................................. 7.4 Benefits of Pollution Prevention 216 ........................................................................................... 7.5 Bibliography 216 ......................................................................................................................... 8 Methods for Treating Wastewaters from Industry 219 .......................................... 8.1 General 219 ................................................................................................................................ 8.2 Principle and Nonprinciple Treatment Mechanisms 220 ............................................................. 8.3 Waste Equalization 223 .............................................................................................................. 8.4 pH Control 227 ............................................................................................................................ 8.5 Chemical Methods of Wastewater Treatment 230 ...................................................................... 8.6 Biological Methods of Wastewater Treatment 255 ..................................................................... 8.7 Development of Design Equations for Biological Treatment of Industrial Wastes 256 ............... 8.8 Physical Methods of Wastewater Treatment 322 ....................................................................... 8.9 Bibliography 394 ......................................................................................................................... 9 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Wastes from Industry 397 ................................ 9.1 Characterization of Solid Wastes 398 ......................................................................................... 9.2 The Solid Waste Landfill 400 ...................................................................................................... 9.3 Solid Waste Incineration 409 ...................................................................................................... 9.4 The Process of Composting Industrial Wastes 421 .................................................................... 9.5 Solidification and Stabilization of Industrial Solid Wastes 427 .................................................... 9.6 Bibliography 433 ......................................................................................................................... 10 Methods for Treating Air Discharges from Industry 437 .................................... 10.1 Reduction at the Source 437 .................................................................................................... 10.2 Containment 437 ....................................................................................................................... 10.3 Treatment 438 ........................................................................................................................... 10.4 Bibliography 456 ....................................................................................................................... Index 461 ...................................................................................................................... ix Preface This book has been developed with the inten- tion of providing an updated primary reference for environmental managers working in indus- try, environmental engineering consultants, graduate students in environmental engineer- ing, and government agency employees concerned with wastes from industries. It pre- sents an explanation of the fundamental mechanisms by which pollutants become dis- solved or suspended in water or air, then builds on this knowledge to explain how different treatment processes work, how they can be optimized, and how one would go about effi- ciently selecting candidate treatment processes. Examples from the recent work history of Woodard & Curran, as well as other environ- mental engineering and science consultants, are presented to illustrate both the approach used in solving various environmental quality problems and the step-by-step design of facili- ties to implement the solutions. Where permis- sion was granted, the industry involved in each of these examples is identified by name. Other- wise, no name was given to the industry, and the industry has been identified only as to type of industry and size. In all cases, the actual numbers and all pertinent information have been reproduced as they occurred, with the intent of providing accurate illustrations of how environmental quality problems have been solved by one of the leading consultants in the field of industrial wastes management. This book is intended to fulfill the need for an updated source of information on the char- acteristics of wastes from numerous types of industries, how the different types of wastes are most efficiently treated, the mechanisms involved in treatment, and the design process itself. In many cases, “tricks” that enable lower cost treatment are presented. These “tricks” have been developed through many years of experience and have not been generally avail- able except by word of mouth. The chapter on laws and regulations is pre- sented as a summary as of the date stated in the chapter itself and/or the addendum that is issued periodically by the publisher. For infor- mation on the most recent addendum, please call the publisher or Woodard & Curran’s office in Portland, Maine, at (207) 774-2112. x Acknowledgments This work was produced over a period of more than five years; during that time, a very large number of individuals, corporations, and various business organizations contributed significant material. I have tried to cite each contributor, and I apologize mightily if I have missed one or more. Thus, I extend heartfelt gratitude and acknowledgement to: Adam H. Steinman; Aeration Technologies, Inc.; R. Gary Gilbert; Albert M. Presgraves; Andy Miller; Claire P. Betze; Connie Bogard; Connie Gipson; Dennis Merrill; Dr. Steven E. Woodard; Geoffrey D. Pellechia; George Abide; George W. Bloom; Henri J. Vincent; Dr. Hugh J. Campbell; J. Alastair Lough; Janet Robinson; Dr. James E. Etzel; James D. Ekedahl; Karen L. Townsend; Katahdin Analytical Services; Keith A. Weisenberger; Kurt R. Marston; Michael Harlos; Michael J. Curato; Patricia A. Proux-Lough; Paul Bishop; Randy E. Tome; Eric P. King; Ray- mond G. Pepin; Robert W. Severance; Steven N. Whipple; Steven Smock; Susan G. Stevens; Terry Rinehart; and Thora Knakkergaard, all of whom contributed text or verbal information from which I freely drew, either word-for-word or by way of paraphrase. I extend special thanks to Adam Steinman, Esq., who provided text and verbal information regarding laws, regulations and environmental audits. 1 1 Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases The approach used to develop systems to treat and dispose of industrial wastes is distinctly different from the approach used for municipal wastes. There is a lot of similarity in the char- acteristics of wastes from one municipality, or one region, to another. Because of this, the best approach to designing a treatment system for municipal wastes is to analyze the performance characteristics of many existing municipal sys- tems and deduce an optimal set of design parameters for the system under consideration. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of other sys- tems, rather than on the waste stream under consideration. In the case of industrial waste, however, few industrial plants have a high degree of similarity between products pro- duced and wastes generated. Therefore, emphasis is placed on analysis of the wastes under consideration, rather than on what is tak- ing place at other industrial locations. This is not to say that there is little value in analyzing the performance of treatment systems at other, more or less similar, industrial locations. Quite the opposite is true. It is simply a matter of emphasis. Wastes from industries are customarily clas- sified as liquid wastes, solid wastes, or air pol- lutants, and often the three are managed by different people or departments. The three sep- arate categories are regulated by separate and distinct bodies of laws and regulations, and his- torically, public and governmental emphasis has moved from one category to another from one time period to another. The fact is, how- ever, that the three categories of wastes are closely interrelated, both as they impact on the environment and as they are generated and managed by individual industrial facilities. Solid wastes disposed of in the ground can influence the quality of groundwater and surface waters by way of leachate entering the groundwater and traveling with it through the ground, then entering a surface water body with groundwater recharge. Volatile organics in that recharge water can contaminate the air. Air pollutants can fall out to become surface water or groundwater pollutants, and water pollutants can infiltrate into the ground or volatilize into the air. Waste treatment processes can also transfer substances from one of the three waste catego- ries to one or both of the others. Air pollutants can be removed from an air discharge by means of a water solution scrubber. The waste scrub- ber solution must then be managed to enable it to be discarded within compliance with appli- cable water regulations. Airborne particulates can be removed from an air discharge using a bag house, thus creating a solid waste to be managed. On still a third level, waste treatment or disposal systems themselves can directly impact on the quality of air, water, or ground. Activated sludge aeration tanks are very effec- tive in causing volatilization of substances from wastewater. Failed landfills can be potent polluters of both groundwater and surface water. The total spectrum of industrial wastes, then, must be managed as substances resulting from a system of interrelated activities. Materials balances must be tracked, and overall cost effectiveness must be kept in focus. Management of Industrial Wastewater With respect to industrial wastewater, Figure 1-1 illustrates the approach for developing a well-operating, cost-effective treatment system. The first step is to gain familiarity with the manufacturing processes themselves. This 2 Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook Figure 1-1 Approach for developing an industrial waste- water treatment system. usually starts with a tour of the facility, and then progresses through a review of the litera- ture and interviews with knowledgeable people. The objective is to gain an understand- ing of how wastewater is produced, for two reasons. The first is to enable an informed and therefore effective wastes reduction, or minimi- zation (pollution prevention) program; the second is to enable proper choice of candidate treatment technologies. Analysis of Manufacturing Processes One of the first steps in the analysis of manu- facturing processes is to develop a block diagram that shows how each manufacturing process contributes wastewater to the treatment facility, as is illustrated in Figure 1-2. In Figure 1-2, a block represents each step in the manu- facturing process. The supply of water to each point of use is represented on the left side of the block diagram. Wastewater that flows away from each point of wastewater generation is shown on the right side. Figure 1-2 is representative of the processes involved in producing finished woven fabric from an intermediate product of the textile industry. The “raw material” for this process is first subjected to a process called “desizing,” during which the substances used to size the woven greige goods, or raw fabric, are removed. The process uses sulfuric acid; there- fore, the liquid waste from this process would be expected to have a low pH as well as contain whatever substances were used as sizing. For instance, if starch were the substance used to size the fabric, the liquid waste from the desiz- ing process would be expected to exhibit a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). As the knowledge became available, from the industry’s records, if possible, or from mea- surements taken as part of a wastewater charac- terization study, the flow rates, total quantities for a typical processing day, upper and lower limits, and characteristics such as BOD, chemi- cal oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), and specific chemicals would be indicated on the block diagram. Each individual process Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 3 undergone during the industrial process would be developed and shown on the block diagram, as illustrated in Figure 1-2. Wastes Minimization and Wastes Characterization Study After becoming sufficiently familiar with the manufacturing processes as they relate to wastewater generation, the design team should institute a wastes minimization program (actually part of a pollution prevention pro- gram) as described in Chapter 7. Then, after the wastes reduction program has become fully implemented, a wastewater characterization study should be carried out, as described in Chapter 6. Figure 1-2 Typical woven fabric finishing process flow diagram. (From the EPA Development Document for the Textile Mills Industry.) 4 Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook The ultimate purpose of the wastewater characterization study is to provide the design team with accurate and complete information on which to base the design of the treatment system. Both quantitative and qualitative data are needed to properly size the facility and to select the most appropriate treatment technologies. Often, enough new information about mate- rials usage, water use efficiency, and wastes generation is learned during the wastewater characterization study to warrant a second level of wastes minimization effort. This second part of the wastes minimization program should be fully implemented, and its effectiveness should be verified by more sampling and analyses, which amounts to an extension of the wastewa- ter characterization study. A cautionary note is appropriate here con- cerning maintenance of the wastes minimiza- tion program. If, after implementation of the wastes minimization program, operation of the manufacturing facilities and/or housekeeping practices loses attention and becomes lax so that wastewater increases in volume, strength, or both, the treatment facility will be underde- signed and will be overloaded at the start. It is extremely important that realistic goals be set and maintained for the wastes minimization program, and that the design team, as well as the industry’s management team, are fully aware of the consequences of overloading the treatment system. Treatment Objectives After the volume, strength, and substance char- acteristics of the wastewater have been established, the treatment objectives must be determined. These objectives depend on where the wastewater is to be sent after treatment. If the treated wastewater is discharged to another treatment facility, such as a regional facility or a municipal treatment system, pretreatment requirements must be complied with. As a minimum, the Federal Pretreatment Guide- lines issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and published in the Federal Register must be complied with. Some municipal or regional treatment facilities have pretreatment standards that are more stringent than those required by the EPA. If the treated effluent is discharged to an open body of water, then a National Pollut- ant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit, plus a permit issued by the appropri- ate state agency, must be complied with. In all cases, Categorical Standards issued by the Federal EPA apply, and it is necessary to work closely with one or more government agencies while developing the treatment objectives. Selection of Candidate Technologies Once the wastewater characteristics and the treatment objectives are known, candidate tech- nologies for treatment can be selected. Rationale for selection is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. The selection should be based on one or more of the following: • Successful application to a similar waste- water • Knowledge of chemistry, biochemistry, and microbiology • Knowledge of what technologies are avail- able, as well as knowledge of their respective capabilities and limitations Then, bench scale investigations should be conducted to determine technical as well as financial feasibility. Bench Scale Investigations Bench scale investigations quickly and effi- ciently determine the technical feasibility and a rough approximation of the financial feasi- bility of a given technology. Bench scale studies range from rough experiments in which substances are mixed in a beaker and results are observed almost immediately, to rather sophisticated continuous flow studies in which a refrigerated reservoir contains repre- sentative industrial wastewater, which is pumped through a series of miniature treat- ment devices that are models of the full-size equipment. Typical bench scale equipment Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 5 includes the six-place stirrer shown in Figure 1-3(a), small columns for ion exchange resins, activated carbon, or sand, shown in Figure 1-3(b), “block aerators,” shown in Figures 1-3(c) and (d), for performing micro- biological treatability studies, and any number of custom-designed devices for testing the technical feasibility of given treatment technologies. Because of scale-up problems, it is seldom advisable to proceed directly from the results of bench scale investigations to design of the full-scale wastewater treatment system. Only in cases for which extensive experience exists with both the type of wastewater being treated and the technology and types of equipment to be used can this approach be justified. Other- wise, pilot scale investigations should be conducted for each technology that appears to be a legitimate candidate for reliable, cost- effective treatment. In the absence of pilot scale investigations, the design team is obliged to be conservative in estimating design criteria for the treatment sys- tem. The likely result is that the cost for the facility will be greater than the total cost for the pilot scale investigations plus the treatment facility that would have been designed using the information that would have been devel- oped from the pilot scale investigations. Said another way, the objective of pilot scale investi- gations is to develop the data necessary to determine the minimum size and least costly system of equipment to enable the design of a treatment system that will reliably meet its intended purpose. Figure 1-3(a) Photograph of a six-place stirrer. (Courtesy of ©Phipps & Bird, Inc., 2000.) 6 Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook Figure 1-3(b) Illustration of a column set-up to evaluate treatment methods that use granular media. (From Wachinski and Etzel, Environmental Ion Exchange: Principles and Design, 1997. Reprinted by permission of CRC/Lewis Publishers.) Figure 1-3(c) Diagrammatic sketch of a block aerator set-up for performing treatability studies in the laboratory.
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