Industrial sand and gravel

46 Pages·1991·7.6 MB·English

by  Bolen, Wallace P

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INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL
\ eR
es By Wallace P. Bolen
Mr. Bolen, a physical scientist, has been the commodity specialist for industrial sand and gravel since October 1988.
Domestic survey data were prepared by Christopher H. Lindsay, statistical assistant; and the international production table
was prepared by Ronald Hatch, international data assistant.
Probably no other nonmetallic mineral Domestic production data for industrial later to the British colonies. The first
has more diversified uses than silica sand and gravel were developed by the manufacturing establishment in what is
(industrial) sand, mainly because of its U.S. Bureau of Mines from voluntary now the United States was a glass factory
common occurrence around the world and surveys of U.S. producers. Of the 152 at Jamestown, VA, built in 1608. The
its distinctive physical characteristics, industrial sand and gravel operations 1885 edition of "Mineral Resources of the
including hardness, resistance to high surveyed, 119 (78%) reported to the U.S. United States," the predecessor of today’s
temperature and chemical action, and Bureau of Mines. Their combined U.S. Bureau of Mines “Minerals
relatively low price. Silica sand is the production represented about 86% of the Yearbook," reported a total of 317,000
major component of common glasses, U.S. total published in table 1. The tons of silica sand produced in 1884 in
foundry molding and cores, abrasive blast production of nonrespondents was the United States, under “Glass
sand, and hydraulic fracturing sand. estimated mostly using employment data. Materials." In 1991, a total of 25.6
Industrial sand and gravel is also- Of the 152 operations, 148 (97%) were million tons of silica sand was produced
important in ceramics, chemicals, and active and 4 idle. (See table 1.) in the United States for a variety of uses,
fillers for rubber and plastics, and also is of which 11.2 million tons was for
utilized in golf courses, as a flux in BACKGROUND glassmaking. Today, glass has become
smelting and chemical production, as an invaluable product with a multitude of
filter media, and in many other uses. One of the first industries to use silica forms and applications.
sand was the glass industry. At least Metals casting was probably the second
DOMESTIC DATA COVERAGE 4,000 years ago, long before iron was industry that used silica sand. Today, the
smelted, glassmaking was already a casting industry provides vital
Production of industrial sand and known craft. Although the place and date components for most modern
gravel in 1991 decreased to 25.6 million of the first manufactured glass are not manufacturing industries. The number of
short tons, about 10% less than 1990’s known, the oldest known specimens of industries using silica sand is growing
production. Production decreased for the glass are from Babylon (ca. 2600 B.C.) constantly, as are the products made by
second year in a row, to its lowest level and from Egypt (ca. 2500 B.C.), where using silica sand.
since 25.3 million tons was produced in the industry was well established by about
1967. During 1991, the following silica 1500 B.C. Many varieties of glass were Definitions, Grades, and Specifications
markets saw decreases in consumption: known during Roman times. Little is
glass containers, fiberglass, foundry sand, known of the glassmaking methods used Sand is defined throughout the industry
blast sand, chemicals, and hydraulic in Europe from the fall of Rome until the and by the American Society for Testing
fracturing sand (frac sand). 10th century, when stained glass was and Materials (ASTM) as granular rock
Exports of silica sand and gravel produced in Venice. After this, Venice particles that pass through a No. 4 mesh
increased about 42% in quantity, but the remained the leader in fine glassware for (0.187-inch) U.S. standard sieve, are
average value per ton, compared with the next four or five centuries. In the retained on a No. 200 mesh (0.0029-inch)
that of 1990, decreased 10%. Imports of 17th century, a process for casting glass sieve, and are the result of natural
industrial sand and gravel increased about was invented in France, and _ later, disintegration or comminution of
25% in quantity, but the associated value England began to make flint glass, cemented rock. Industrial sand or silica
decreased 70%. Domestic apparent marking the beginning of modern glass sand is the term used by the industry for
consumption of industrial sand and gravel technology. sands that have a very high percentage of
in 1991 was 24.1 million short tons, a Glassmaking was apparently the first silicon dioxide (SiO,) and are essential
decrease of almost 12% compared with industry to be transplanted from Europe materials in glass manufacture, in ferrous
that of 1990. to North America, first to Mexico and and nonferrous foundry operations, in
an
INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL—1991
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Denver Federal Center
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certain chemical and _ metallurgical materials that have to be met by the specifications varied with the type of
processes, for hydraulic fracturing of oil suppliers of glass sand. Recently, glass abrasive action and the requirements of
and gas deposits, and in many manufacturers showed an _ increased the final product. An angular particle
manufactured products as fillers or interest in finer glass sands because shape with sharp cutting edges was
extenders. processing of smaller particles required generally required.
Most industrial sands have been named lower temperatures and, therefore, Hydraulic fracturing sand was pumped
for their specific uses; for example, reduced the consumption of energy. into oil or natural gas wells as a sand-
glass, foundry, abrasive, filler, and Foundry sands included molding sand liquid mixture to break up petroleum-
hydraulic fracturing sands. Almost and core sand that were used for casting bearing formations and act as a propping
invariably, these sands, in addition to iron-, aluminum-, and copper-base alloys. agent, allowing oil or gas to move more
being high in silica, consist mostly of Required properties included cohesiveness freely toward the producing wells. Some
quartz grains. sufficient to hold together the mold or of the major requirements for fracturing
core when moist, which is achieved by a sands were spherical, well-rounded grains
Products for Trade and Industry bonding agent; refractoriness to withstand of clean, dried, and well-screened quartz
the high temperature of the molten metal; sand, free of any materials such as
Silica sand had a wide range of uses in strength to resist the weight of the metal; feldspar, calcite, and clay. The most
a significant number of industries, the permeability to release vapors and gases common size was 20/40 mesh; other sizes
most important being glass and foundry. generated during cooling of the metal; included 6/12, 8/16, 12/20, 40/70, and
Other uses were metallurgical and as and proper texture and composition to 70/140, but these sands represented only
abrasives, as fillers, for filtration, and for produce a smooth casting that will not about 15% of the total sand used as
hydraulic fracturing of rock formations to react with the metal. Most metals were proppant. "Recommended Practices for
improve recovery in oil wells. cast in "green sand," which is a mixture Testing Sand Used in Hydraulic
Glass sand was used as a main of silica and clay, although to a lesser Fracturing Operations," published by the
constituent for manufacturing glass extent, resins or oils were also used as a American Petroleum Institute, was used
containers, flat glass, safety glass, bonding agent instead of clays. In the as a guide by industry.’
pressed and blown glass, fiberglass, and case of naturally bonded foundry sands, Ground sand or silica flour has found
a wide variety of specialty glasses such as the amount of clay minerals present wide industrial application as a filler in
optical glass and industrial glass. affected their usefulness. Standard tests paint, plastics, rubber, ceramics, and a
Glass sand had to meet nigid and specifications for foundry sands were variety of other products. Mainly
specifications with respect to purity and published by the American Foundrymen’s because of the diversity of its uses, no
silica content, depending on the kind of Society.! standard specifications exist for the silica
glass being manufactured. Only a very Refractory sands were used in the flour used in most of these applications
small amount of iron oxide and chromium manufacture of silica brick and tile, except grain size and _ chemical
compounds could be tolerated, and a high quartzite (gannister) being the commonly composition.
percentage of aluminum, calcium, or used raw material. Required properties Silicon carbide, which was used as an
magnesium oxides was undesirable. The were “the capability of maintaining the abrasive, for refractory uses, and in
standards of the American Ceramic desired degree of chemical and physical specialty ceramics, was produced by the
Society for glass sand indicated that all identity at high temperatures" and reaction of silica sand (60%) and coke
grains should pass through a No. 20 mesh resistance to abrasion, impact, thermal (40%) at elevated temperatures up to
screen, between 40% and 60% should be shock, and high level of load. Refractory 2,400° C.
retained on a No. 60 screen, between silica materials were classified based on Metallurgical sand was used as a
10% and 20% on a No. 80 screen, and their general composition and on their fluxing agent for basic oxides in various
not more than 5% should pass a No. 100 distinctive properties. Standard smelting operations and as a source of
screen. Sand for first-quality optical classifications and specifications for silica silicon in ferrosilicon manufacture. The
glass should contain 99.8% SiO, and a refractory brick were published by the ferrosilicon was a steel alloying additive.
maximum of 0.1% aluminum oxide ASTM.? Filter sand was used extensively in
(AL,O,) and 0.02% iron oxide (Fe,QO,). Quartz sands, on the Knoop scale at filtering water for municipal and
Third-quality flint glass could contain 820, are quite hard and are one of the industrial use and swimming pools and in
only 95% SiO, and as high as 4% ALO,. oldest abrasives known.’ Abrasive sands sewage treatment plants. Engine sand
Only in the low-quality amber glass was were quartz sands used in stone sawing, was used in locomotive haulage to
the content of Fe,O, permitted to reach glass grinding, metal polishing, and sand improve traction. Other sands were used
1%. blasting. No rigid specifications existed in special cements, in manufacturing
Most glass manufacturers established for these sands, but sound, clean, hard, silica brick and tiles for furnace linings
their own specifications for the physical and closely sized sand grains were and beds, for coal washing, and in
size and chemical purity of the raw required. Purity and grain-shape manufacturing pottery. Industrial sand
INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL—1991
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was also used for chemical production, could be assumed, on the basis of source of hydraulic fracturing sand; the
golf courses (both in traps and in green geologic evidence, that world reserves Raritan formation of Upper Cretaceous
construction), and building products. were sufficient to meet demand, even if age in central New Jersey and the
Industrial gravel was used as the source not always at the locations where needed. Cohansey sand of probable Miocene age
material in the production of silicon and Industrial sand or silica sand was in southern New Jersey; and _ the
ferrosilicon and as a flux for the produced in the United States from a Tuscarora quartzite of Lower Silurian age
production of copper, nickel, and variety of geological formations ranging in Pennsylvania and Virginia used for the
elemental phosphorus. Some gravel was in age from late Precambrian to mid- manufacture of refractory bricks. Other
also used as filtration media, mainly in Tertiary. About 70 stratigraphic units deposits are the Sylvania sandstone of
municipal water treatment facilities. were known as having an economic Devonian age in the Detroit area; the Oil
potential for this industry. Lithologically, Creek and McLish formations of Lower
Industry Structure these deposits ranged from quartzites, Ordovician age in Oklahoma, a
sandstones with different degrees of southwestward extension of the St. Peter
In 1991, 77 U.S. companies with 148 cementation, quartz conglomerates, chert sandstone; and the Hickory sandstone of
active operations produced silica sand and deposits, and quartz pegmatites to terrace Cambrian age in central Texas that
gravel. The individual industrial sand sands and gravels, and dune sands. Most produced mostly hydraulic fracturing
and gravel operations ranged in size from of the high-quality industrial sand was sand.
those producing about 1 million tons produced from a_ few — geological In the West, the most important
annually to those reporting less than formations in the Eastern United States. sources of industrial sand were the Ione
10,000 tons per year. Most of the Oriskany sandstone, or more precisely the formation of Eocene age in northern
production came from large operations Ridgeley formation of Early Devonian California, the Silverado (Paleocene) and
that were mostly owned or operated by a age, was one important source of silica Tejon (Eocene) formations in southern
small number of companies. In the past sand. It extended from New York State California, and the Eureka quartzite of
10 to 15 years, there was a gradual trend to southern Virginia and eastern Ohio, Middle Ordovician age in_ central
toward larger operations, mostly because but was being mined only in central California.
small plants were becoming less Pennsylvania, northwestern Maryland, Approximately two-thirds of the U.S.
economical. The viability of small and northern West Virginia, where the industrial sand and gravel was produced
operations was dependent on demand in formation was thick enough to be of east of the Mississippi River, especially
local markets, mining conditions, and the commercial value. It was a hard, white in the industrialized areas of the East
degree of processing required to supply orthoquartzite with medium to fine, North Central, South Atlantic, and
the final product. angular and subangular, and well-sorted Middle Atlantic regions. Of the top five
During the past 10 years, changes grains. The St. Peter sandstone of producing States that accounted for about
within the structure of the industrial sand Middle Ordovician age, extending from 45% of 1991 production, three—Illinois,
industry occurred, primarily caused by Wisconsin and Minnesota through Iowa, Michigan, and New Jersey—were in the
mergers and acquisitions, some resulting Illinois, and east-central Missouri, was East and the other two—Califormia and
from an influx of foreign capital, mostly another major source of industrial sand. Texas—were in the West. The
from Europe. The best known center of production of concentration of the industrial sand
silica sand from this formation was the operations in the eastern part of the
Geology-Resources Ottawa district of La Salle County, IL, United States resulted from the existence
where it was known as "Ottawa sand," of high-quality geologic deposits close to
U.S. resources of industrial sand and and to a lesser degree in southern the major consuming industries, glass and
gravel were expected to be sufficient to Wisconsin and east-central Missouri. It foundry. In the south and west, demand
meet domestic demand in the foreseeable was a soft and poorly cemented high- from the oil-and gas industry in the
future, although their geographic purity orthoquartzite with coarse, rounded Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas area has
distribution and quality often did not grains. The weak cement holding the sustained the growth of industrial sand
match market requirements. The silica grains together was mostly a light- operations in Texas. California
availability of these reserves was colored clay. production remained large owing to
controlled to a significant degree by land In addition to the two formations just demands from local industry, particularly
use and/or environmental constraints. mentioned, the most important sources of the glass container industry, and the
Reserves of industrial sand and gravel industrial sand in the United States, distance of California from the traditional
owned or controlled by domestic numerous other deposits were also being production areas in the Midwest.
producers were estimated to total about 3 mined for silica sand in different parts of
to 4 billion tons. the country. Included are the Jordan
Although silica reserve data for the sandstone of Upper Cambrian age in
rest of the world were not available, it Minnesota and Wisconsin, a primary
INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL—1991
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Technology on the degree of cementation of the rock, Significant technological developments
although most open pit mining operations instrumental in maintaining adequate
Exploration.—A large number of included site clearing and removal of the production at relatively stable real costs
geologic formations with economic overburden; mining of the silica rock or were mostly in the processing plant
potential as a source of industrial sand sand; processing of the material, technology. The use of computerized
have been mapped and described in the including crushing, screening, and systems in plant operation and quality
literature over many years and were, classification; and reclamation of the control increased; this, along with
therefore, well known. Consequently, extraction area. Unconsolidated sands, improved mining and _ processing
detailed exploration and development such as the Cohansey of New Jersey, equipment, permitted the recovery of
work for new industrial sand operations below the ground water level were salable fractions that were previously
was expected to occur on some of these dredged. Much of the St. Peter considered uneconomical.
formations. The qualities of a silica sandstone was first loosened by light
deposit necessary for a viable operation blasting and then washed down by Recycling.—Recycling of silica sands
should include proper particle size, hydraulic jets or “monitors” into sumps, was limited to some foundry sands,
chemical composition, degree of from which it was pumped to the particularly those used for making cores
cementation, and deposit uniformity. processing plants. Harder rock such as and molds with no-bake resin-bonded
Also, the nature and amount of waste the Oriskany sandstone required blasting sands, some abrasive and _airblasting
| material and the economic feasibility of and primary and secondary crushing sands, and, increasingly, post consumer
its removal and possible use or disposal before it could be processed. glass and scrap glass that substitutes for
should be studied. The evaluation of the glass sand. Most glass recycling was
new deposit should also include an Processing.—Processing of mined restricted to container glass, with green
environmental impact study as required silica sand required specialized operations and amber being consumed at a higher
by most local or State agencies before that varied considerably with the nature rate than flint because it was more
authorizing a new mining operation. of the deposit and the physical and difficult to use in the batch mix. As the
If the raw material should prove to chemical requirements of the desired level of glass used increases, so does the
meet the requirements and adequate product. Depending on the degree of level of quality required. Contamination
eserves are demonstrated, the cementation, several stages of crushing of cullet by ceramics and nonmagnetic
development stage of the operation could were necessary to achieve the desired size materials was an increasing concern.
be started. Economic feasibility and reduction. Gyratory crushers, jaw International trends toward increased
marketing studies should be performed by crushers, impact mills, or roll crushers recycling of glass and foundries sands
analyzing all factors important for any were used as primary or secondary and innovative ideas on recycling other
such mining operations. Included are the crushers, and smooth rolls, media mills, materials should influence greater
availability of power and water supply, autogenous mills, high-speed hammer recycling of silica products.
mining and processing costs and mills, or fluid energy jet mills were used
requirements, and the condition of nearby for grinding the product down to 50 Byproducts and Coproducts
roads and highways. Other factors microns and finer. Dry or wet screening
include the proximity of rail haulage; the was used to separate particles of sizes Small amounts of gold and silver were
cost of compliance with local, State, and down to about 150 microns, and wet or recovered occasionally as a byproduct or
Federal regulations; and the proximity air classifiers processed particles from coproduct from some _ unconsolidated
and density of local population as well as 250 microns into the submicron range. silica sand deposits. Also, during the
its attitude toward such a project. Vibratory screens and gyratory screens, processing of some silica resources, other
in addition to mechanical, hydraulic, or minerals, including clays, feldspars,
Mining.—Most industrial sand was air classifiers, were used, depending on mica, and quartz crystals, were produced
mined from open quarries, but a few the size distribution required. as byproducts and coproducts.
underground operations existed, mostly Research for the silica mining industry
because of an_ exceptionally thick related not only to new methods that Economic Factors
overburden or environmental limitations. increased output and reduced production
Surface mining methods and equipment costs but also to health and safety Silica sand deposits are nonrenewable
varied with the type of the geologic problems as well as exploration, land resources. New mining methods
formation, size and configuration of the management, and_ reclamation. combined with advances in mineral
deposit, production capacity, estimated Equipment manufacturers and some processing that were introduced during
life of the operation, and location of the Government agencies were constantly the past decade have increased the
deposit with respect to urban centers. working on improving exploration, number of silica deposits that can be
The mining methods depended primarily mining, and processing plant technology. commercially developed.
INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL—1991
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The industrial sand industry was very production costs being close to the f.o.b. governmental agency, which sometimes
competitive, largely because silica sand is selling price per ton. also required an Environmental Impact
a relatively abundant mineral, with supply Statement (EIS) and a reclamation plan
usually exceeding demand. The delivered Tariffs.—There has been no tariff on that met its guidelines or regulations.
price of the product, in addition to imported silica sand containing 95% or More and more emphasis was being put
quality, was a very important element in more SiO, and not more than 0.6% iron by local communities on improving the
any major transaction. The producer oxide from most favored nations since overall appearance of the operating mines
with an operation closest to the market January 1, 1987. For all other countries, as well as on land reclamation after
had a_ significant advantage over the tariff for imported silica sand remains mining was completed. At the same
competitors. Combining sophisticated $1.94 per long ton. time, industry and the communities had to
(and therefore expensive) processing recognize the time and costs required to
equipment backed by technical knowledge Depletion Provisions.—The depletion protect the environment and_ the
and solid sales expertise was important. allowance for industrial sand and gravel importance of agreeing on fair and
For this reason, only a small number of was 14%. realistic environmental standards. Many
large companies were able to compete States, counties, and towns had zoning
successfully and succeed in the silica Operating Factors laws that regulated land use.
sand business and supply a wide variety Most of the active silica sand quarries
of products. Smaller, less efficient Environmental Requirements.—Major as well as the known deposits were on
operations became uneconomical as environmental considerations that had to private land, which was either owned or
operating costs, as well as_ costs be dealt with in mining and processing of leased on a long-term basis by the
associated with meeting various Federal, industrial sand and gravel were emission producers. These deposits contained
State, and local regulations, continued to of particulate matter into the air, high-quality silica sand and were in the
increase. The only alternatives they had discharge of processing water, and noise best locations with respect to markets.
were to either limit the range of products abatement. Air pollution constituted a Unlike the construction sand and gravel
they supplied to close markets or go out major problem in the processing plants, industry, the industrial sand industry was
of business. especially in the drying and packaging usually not significantly affected by
stages of finer products such as silica increasing land values near populated
Prices.—As a result of rapidly rising flour, silicosis being the major disease areas.
costs of labor, energy, and mining and that can be contracted as a result of long-
processing equipment, 1991 constant term exposure to silica dust. Because of Transportation.—Transportation costs
dollar prices of industrial sand rose the high cost of compliance with the for silica sand were often equal or
steadily between 1973 to 1983. From environmental regulations designed to considerably greater than the cost of the
1985 to 1991, 1991 constant dollar prices reduce this health hazard and possible product at the processing plant. Because
fluctuated in the 15.25 to 16.25 range long-term liabilities associated with it, of the large variety and number of
owing to decreased demand and tight some companies were no _ longer consumers of silica sand, long distance
competition in some markets. Prices producing silica flour or did not plan to haulage was not uncommon. In 1991, the
should be expected to continue to produce it in the future. Both wet and largest tonnage, 56% of all industrial
fluctuate, although they should slowly dry methods of dust control were used. sand, was shipped by truck because most
rise as a result of the cost of compliance The most important water pollutant was users require a versatile and rapid
with more stringent environmental, land clay in suspension as a result of washing delivery system. Substantial quantities,
use, and safety regulations. and screening silica sand. Because of the 40% of the total, were also shipped by
large quantities of water used to process rail, especially when large volumes were
Costs.—Production costs for silica sand silica sands and the need of compliance sent long distances. The remaining
were determined to a large extent by the with stringent regulations, the treatment tonnage was shipped by barge or used at
cost of labor, equipment, energy supply, of discharge water by the sand producer the mine.
water availability, and the additional was expected to require increasingly
burden of compliance with environmental sophisticated and expensive processing ANNUAL REVIEW
and safety regulations. Production costs methods. Significant progress was made
varied widely depending on the nature of in reducing noise pollution, both inside Production
the geologic deposit, the geographic and outside of the operations, including
location, and the type and number of noise and vibration produced by blasting The Midwest (East and West North
products produced. Profits were and movement of heavy trucks. Central regions) continued to lead the
relatively small for most producers, total Sand producers had to obtain mining Nation in production, with about 42% of
permits from the appropriate the 25.6 million tons produced in the
United States, followed by the South
INDUSTRIAL SAND AND GRAVEL—1991
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