Industrial Accelerators and Their Applications

436 Pages·2012·12.103 MB·English

by  Robert W. Hamm, Marianne E. Hamm

INDUSTRIAL
ACCELERATORS
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
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INDUSTRIAL
ACCELERATORS
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Edited by
Robert W. Hamm
Marianne E. Hamm
R & M Technical Enterprises, California, USA
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI
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Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
INDUSTRIAL ACCELERATORS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Copyright © 2012 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic
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ISBN 978-981-4307-04-8
Printed in Singapore.
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v
DEDICATION
The editors wish to dedicate this book to our longtime colleague and dear
friendDr. JeromeL.Duggan, Regents Professor of Physics at the University
of North Texas, whose urgings and suggestions ultimately led to the idea of
producing it. Jerry is widely recognized for his tireless efforts to promote
and support the use of accelerators through his work at UNT, where he
has mentored and inspired countless students throughout his tenure, and
through 40+ years of leadership of his highly successful conference series on
theApplications ofAccelerators inResearch andIndustry(CAARI).Infact,
it was our attendance at CAARI conferences during our graduate studies at
Texas A&M University that piqued our interest in thepractical applications
of accelerators and led to our successful careers in industry.
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vii
CONTENTS
Dedication v
Introduction to the Beam Business 1
Robert W. Hamm and Marianne E. Hamm
Chapter 1. Ion Implantation for Fabrication
of Semiconductor Devices and Materials 9
Michael I. Current
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Applications of Ion Implantation: Devices and Materials . . . . . . 10
2.1 Pre-amorphization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Cocktail implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Carbon implants for tensile strained nMOS . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Oxygen implants for direct formation
of Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) wafers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Hydrogen implants for formation of SOI wafers
by layer transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. Accelerator Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1 Beamline system types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Accel-decel beamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 MeV beamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Plasma immersion and ion shower implanters . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 SIMOX high-current, high-temperature implanters . . . . . . 25
4. Ion Source Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Special ion sources: SIMOX, molecular ions, non-volatile
elements, and large-area beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. Scanning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1 Beam deflection and wafer motion in orthogonal
directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Spinning wheel and pendulum wafer scanning . . . . . . . . . 36
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viii Industrial Accelerators and Their Applications
6. New Directions: Gas Cluster Ions, Photovoltaic Cell Doping,
and MeV Protons for Si Membrane Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1 Gas cluster ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2 Doping of Si-based photovoltaic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.1 Alternatives to implant doping for PV cells . . . . . . 45
6.2.2 Advanced PV cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 High-current, multi-MeV proton beams for fabrication
of thin Si PV membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7. Implantation into Metals and Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.1 Metals: hardness, friction, and corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.2 Biomaterials treated by plasma immersion implantation
and deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Chapter 2. Electron Beam Materials Processing 57
Donald E. Powers
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2. Electron Beam Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3. Electron Beam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Large steam turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2 High efficiency impellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3 Speed gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4 Drive rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4. EB Cutting and Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5. EB Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6. EB Melting and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7. Summary and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter 3. Electron Beam Materials Irradiators 87
Marshall R. Cleland
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2. Physical Properties of High-Energy Electrons and X-Rays . . . . . 89
2.1 High-energy electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2 High-energy X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3 Radiation dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
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Contents ix
2.4 Dose versus electron beam power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.5 Dose versus electron beam current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3. Industrial Electron Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.1 Low-energy accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2 Medium-energy accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3 High-energy accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4. Major Applications of Industrial EB Irradiators . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.1 Cross-linking of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.1.1 Wire and cable insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.2 Heat-shrinkable plastic tubing and film . . . . . . . . . 116
4.1.3 Curing of inks, coatings, and adhesives . . . . . . . . . 117
4.1.4 Automobile tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.5 Polyethylene foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2 Radiation sterilization of medical devices . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3 Irradiation of foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5. Other EB Irradiation Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.1 Treatment of waste materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.2 Cleaning of stack gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3 Curing of composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4 Silicon-carbide fiber manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.5 Production of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.6 Cross-linking of PTFE and rubber sheeting . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.7 Seed and soil disinfestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.8 Human tissue sterilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.9 Direct food contact coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Chapter 4. Accelerator Production of Radionuclides 139
David J. Schlyer and Thomas J. Ruth
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2. Applications of Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.1 Radiotracers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.2 Nuclear medicine imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.3 Therapeutic and other medical applications . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.3.1 Brachytherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.3.2 Targeted radiotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.3.3 Other medical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.4 Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151