Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists & Their Tibetan Successors

670 Pages·2003·1.07 MB·English

by  David Snellgrove

I -T
n d o ib e t a n
B
u d d h is m
INDIAN BUDDHISTS and
THEIR TIBETAN SUCCESSORS
David Snellgrove
Shambhala
Boston
2002
Shambhala Publications, Inc.
Horticultural Hall
300 Massachusetts Avenue
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
www. shambhala. com
© 1987,2002 by David L. Snellgrove
Published by arrangement with Orchid Press, Bangkok
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any informadon storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
©This edition is printed on acid-free paper that meets
the American National Standards Institute z39.48 Standard.
Distributed in the United States by Random House, Inc.,
and in Canada by Random House of Canada Ltd
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Snellgrove, David L.
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their
Tibetan successors/David Snellgrove.
p. cm.
Originally published: London: Serindia Publications, c.1987.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-57062-973-0
1. Buddhism—India—History. 2. Buddhism—China—Tibet—History.
3. Buddhism—Doctrines—History. I. Title.
BQ286 .S64 2002
294.3*0954—dc21
2002075775
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS viii
LIST OF PLATES ix
MAPS xiii
PREFACE xix
NOTES ON TRANSCRIPTION xxvi
I: ORIGINS IN INDIA
1. The Rediscovery of Indian Buddhism 1
2. Sákyamuni: Buddha of the Present World-Age 5
3. The Concepts of Samsára and Nirvana
a. The Nature of Šákyamuni’s Enlightenment 11
b. The Doctrine of Nonself and the Dharma-Theory 19
c. The Relativity of Philosophical Explanations 23
4. The Preeminence of Buddhahood
a. Sákyamuni as Buddha and Man 29
b. The Cult of Relics 35
5. The Buddhist Community 39
II: LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
1. Buddhism becomes a Pan-Asian Religion 44
2. The Buddha Image
a. The Earliest Representations in Human Form 47
b. Can there be more than one Buddha at the same time? 52
3. Bodhisattvas
a. Their Function as Quasi-Celestial Beneficent Beings 58
b. The Career of a Bodhisattva as a Human Aspiration 61
c. An Evaluation of a Bodhisattva’s Skill in Means (upáyakausalya) 66
d. Bodhisattvas in Paradise 71
e. All Buddhas and Bodhisattvas essentially one and the same 76
4. The Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Doctrine 79
a. The First Turning 80
b. The Second Turning 81
c. The Third Turning 94
d. The Theory of Buddha-folds 109
e. The Theory of the Buddha-embryo 111
f. The Theory of Buddha-bodies 115
III: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
1. Connections with the more conventional Mahayana 117
2. The Vajrayana as a new and distinct “way” 128
3. Vajrapáni (alias Vajradhara) becomes preeminent 134
4. Magical Formulas 141
5. The Votaries of the Tantras 144
6. Various Kinds of Tantras
a. Tantras relatable to Mahayana Sutras 147
b. Tantras with non-Buddhist Associations 152
7. Tantric Feasts 160
8. The Argument for Implicit Interpretations 170
9. The Importance of one’s chosen Teacher 176
10. The Later Amalgamation and Promulgation of Tantric Teachings 180
11. Buddha-Families 189
12. TheMandala 198
13. Initiations and Consecrations
a. Initiation as distinct from “Ordination” 213
b. The “Descent” of Absolute Wisdom 220
c. The Use of Jars in Consecration Ceremonies 223
d. The Order of Consecrations in variousc lasses of Tantras 228
e. The Power of Coercion 235
f. The Process of Self-Consecration 240
14. Further Consecrations
a. Interpretations of the Higher Consecrations, Scholastic, Lyrical
and Ritual 243
b. Scholastic Equations in Sets of Four 247
c. The Higher Consecrations according to the Tradition of Hevajra 254
d. Consecration as a Psychophysical Process 262
e. References to Higher Consecrations in Yoga Tantras 266
f. The Problem of Textual Obscurity 270
15. Special Concepts of Tantric Yogins
a. Buddhahood as Twofold rather than Fivefold 278
b. Wisdom and Means 281
c. The Cult of the Human Body 288
d. The Coalescence of all concepts through the practice of
Tantric Yoga 294
IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
1. Traces of Buddhism in India
a. Continuity in Buddhist Monastic Life 305
b. The apparent lateness of Iconographic Representation in
relationship with the relevant texts 315
2. Traces of Buddhism in Central Asia
a. The Historical Background 324
b. Khotan 331
c. Other Important Sites 343
d. The Tibetan Occupation 350
3. Buddhism in Nepal
a. The Early Period 362
b. The Later Period 375
V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
1. Political and Social Factors
a. The Rulers of Tibet 381
b. The Cultural Effects of Territorial Expansion 386
c. Early Situations leading to the later emergence of
rNying-ma-pas and Bonpos 396
d. Royal Inscriptions and Edicts 408
2. Religious Factors
a.. Factions and Disputes 426
b. Varieties of Teaching 436
c. Early Tibetan Tantras 451
d. Freedom from Restraint 463
3. The Combination of Politics and Religion
a. The Rulers of Western Tibet 470
b. The Founding of Religious Orders 485
c. Final Reflections 508
PLATES 529
BIBLIOGRAPHY 617
INDEX 634
ABBREVIATIONS
AF Asiatische Forschungen (publication series on the history, culture,
and languages of the peoples of East and Central Asia, issued by
the Seminar für Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens,
University of Bonn)
AOH Acta Orientalia, Hungarian Academy of Sciences
ASP Astasàhasrikà Prajfiàpâramità
BEFEO Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrème Orient
Blue Annals See Roerich in Bibliography
BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London
CAJ Central Asiatic Journal, The Hague and Wiesbaden
DTH Documents de Touen-houang relatifs à l'histoire du Tibet, see
Bacot, J. in the Bibliography
EFEO École française d’Extrême Orient
GOS Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, Baroda, India
GST Guhyasamàja Tantra
HJAS Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
HT Hevajra Tantra
IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly, Calcutta
JA Journal Asiatique, Paris
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society, Baltimore
JASB Journal of Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London
MCB Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques, Brussels
MK Manjusrïmùlakalpa, ed. Ganapati Sàstri
MMK Mülamadhyamakakàrikà, see Prasannapadà in Skr/Tib Bibl
MVP Mahàvyutpatti, ed. A. Sakaki, Kyoto, 1916 and 1925, together
with Tibetan index by K. Nishio, Kyoto, 1936
OUP Oxford University Press
PTS Pâli Text Society, London
RAS Royal Asiatic Society, London
SBB Sacred Books of the Buddhists, PTS, London
SBE Sacred Books of the East, PTS, London and Max Müller, Oxford
SDPS Sarvadurgatiparisodhana Tantra
Skr/Tib Bibl Sanskrit/Tibetan and Pâli Bibliography
STTS Sarvatathägatatattvasamgraha
(“Symposium of Truth” = STTS)
TT Tibetan Tripitika, Tokyo-Kyoto, 1958
ZAS Zentral Asiatische Studien, Wiesbaden
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Berlin
LIST OF PLATES
(Between pages 528 and 617)
la. Bodhgaya. 18a. Padmapani Avalokitesvara, late
lb. Samath. Pala (British Museum).
2a. K&sia (Kusinagara) stupa. 18b. Sakyamuni, flanked by Padma­
2b. S&ncl (general view. pani and Vajrapani, c.l2th
3. The Wheel of Life. century (British Museum).
4a. Mara’s assault (Nagarjunakonda 19a. Vajrapani, 10-12th century (Bri­
Museum, Andra Pradesh). tish Museum).
4b. Sakyamuni being offered bundle 19b. Vajrapani in aggressive mood
of grass as a cushion (Lahore (British Museum).
Museum). 20a. Bell and Vajra.
3a. Sanci, details of stone carvings. 20b. Vajradhara/Vajrapani, a Pala
5b. Sanci, details of stone carvings. image in stone (India Museum,
6. Sanci, Sakyamuni’s footprints. Calcutta).
7a. Bhaja, rock-cut temple. 21a. Hariti, stone image, Ratnagiri.
7b. Bedsa, rock-cut temple. 21b. Mahakala, stone image, Ratna­
8a. Nasik, Buddha images. giri.
8b. Kanheri, Buddha images. 22a. Tara, stone image, Ratnagiri.
9. Buddha image, Gandhara style 22b. Avalokitesvara, stone image,
(National Museum of India, New Ratnagiri.
Delhi). 23a. Mahasiddha Avadudhipa, 14th/
10. Buddha image, Mathura style 15th century (Victoria & Albert
(Mathura Museum). Museum).
11. Diparikara Buddha (Kabul 23b. Mahasiddha Ghantapa and
Museum). partner, 15 th/17 th centuries
12. Maitreya Bodhisattva (National (Victoria & Albert Museum).
Museum of Pakistan, Karachi). 24. Sambara, a Tibetan thang-kha,
13a. Sakyamuni’s birth scene, Gan­ c.l8th century (from G. Roerich,
dhara style (Lahore Museum). Tibetan Paintings, Paris, 1926,
13b. Sakyamuni’s decease, Gandhara p. 40).
style (Lahore Museum). 25. Yamantaka, a late Tibetan
14a. Ajanta, cave 26. image (British Museum).
14b. Ajanta, cave 10. 26. Hevajra, mural painting, Dolpo.
15. Buddha, enhaloed by flames, 27. Vajravarahi, a Tibetan image
Gandhara style (Kabul Museum). (Victoria & Albert Museum).
16. Sakyamuni, earth-witness pose, 28. A dakini, a Tibetan image
Ratnagiri (Orissa). (British Museum).
17a. Manjusri image, c.lOth century 29a. Yogini temple, Hirapur, Orissa.
(British Museum). 29b. Yogini temple, Hirapur, Orissa,
17b. Manjusri image, c.l2th century interior section.
(British Museum). 30-1. Miniature paintings from an
x LIST OF PLATES
11th-century Pàla MS of the bished (Heibonsha Publishing
Astasàhasrikà Prajnàpàramità Co., Japan).
(Cambridge University Library, 44a. Sákyamuni Buddha and dis­
Add. 1643). ciples, a fragmented painting
32. Vajradhara and partner, Newar- from Mirán (Sir Aurel Stein
Tibetan (private collection). collection, now in the National
33a. The Five Buddhas, carved on a Museum of India, New Delhi).
rock-face (Shey, Ladakh). 44b. Vairocana Buddha, a fragmen­
33b. Three stüpas representing Mari- ted painting from Balawaste,
jusri, Avalokitesvara and Vajra- Khotan (Sir Aurel Stein col­
pàni (Changspa, Leh, Ladakh). lection, now in the National
34. Mandala of Mahavairocana Museum of India, New Delhi).
(Alchi, Ladakh). 45. A king and queen of Kucha with
35. Mandala of Sàkyamuni and the a monk, mural painting from
eight Usnisa-Buddhas (Alchi, Kizil, Kucha (A. Griinwedel,
Ladakh). Alt-Kutscha).
36. Mural painting of Vajrapàni/ 46a. The Arhat Kášyapa at the Rá-
Vajrasattva (Basgo, Ladakh). jagrha Council, mural painting
37. Three-dimensional mandala, from Kizil, Kucha (A. von le
Sino-Tibetan, 18th century Coq, Buddhistische Spatantike).
(Musée Guimet, Paris). 46b. Group of Central Asian monks,
38a. A small stüpa inset with Bud­ fragmented mural painting from
dhas and Bodhisattvas, 6th/7th Ming-oi, Kara-shahr (Sir Aurel
century (Dhvàka-bàhà, Kath­ Stein collection, now in the
mandu). National Museum of India, New
38b. A set of five small stüpas, possibly Delhi).
7th/8th century (Cuka-bàhà, 47a. Two scenes: Sákyamuni’s decease
Pàtan, Nepal). (below), and the cremation cere­
39. The Cilandyo Stüpa (Kirtipur, mony as performed by the
Nepal). Mallas, mural painting from
40. Maitreya and leading Kushànas, Kizil, Kucha (A. Griinwedel,
stone plaque (Kabul Museum). Alt-Kutscha).
41a. Khârosthi script (from the Gàn- 47b. The contest for Šákyamuni’s
dhàri Dharmapada). relics, painting from Kizil, Kucha
41b. Brahmi script (from the Kho- (A. Griinwedel, Alt-Kutscha).
tanese Sùrahgamasamàdhisùtra) 48a. Fivefold stupa tower, Kocho,
42. Vaisravana and the king of Turfan (German Turfan Ex­
Khotan, mural painting, Tun- pedition).
huang, cave no. 154 (Heibonsha 48b. Stupa towers among the ruins of
Publishing Co., Japan). Yar, Turfan 1905/7.
43a. Bàmiyan, general view of Bud­ 49. Meditating Buddha, Tun-huang,
dhist caves. cave no. 248.
43b. Tun-huang, general view of 50. Buddha flanked by Bodhisattvas,
Buddhist caves as recently refur­ Tun-huang, cave no. 427.