Indo-Aryan languages PDF
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T HE INDO-ARYAN L A N G U A G ES Edited by George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain Routledge I Taylor & Francis Croup LONDON AND NEW YORK ROUTLEDGE LANGUAGE FAMILY SERIES Each volume provides a detailed, reliable account of every member language, or representative languages, of a particular family. Each account is a reliable source of data, arranged according to the natural system of classification: phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, semantics, dialectology and sociolinguistics. Each volume is designed to be the essential source of reference for a particular linguistic community, as well as for linguists working on typology and syntax. The Austronesian Languages of Asia The Mongolic Languages and Madagascar Edited by Juha Janhunen Edited by Nikolaus Himmelmann The Munda Languages & Sander Adelaar Edited by Norman H. Zide & The Bantu Languages Gregory D. S. Anderson Edited by Derek Nurse The Oceanic Languages & Gerard Philippson Edited by John Lynch, Malcolm Ross The Celtic Languages & Terry Crowley Edited by Martin Ball & James Fife The Romance Languages The Dravidian Languages Edited by Martin Harris Edited by Sanford B. Steever & Nigel Vincent The Germanic Languages The Semitic Languages Edited by Johan van der Anwera Edited by Robert Hetzron & Ekkehard Konig The Sino-Tibetan Languages The Indo-Aryan Languages Edited by Graham Thurgood Edited by George Cardona & Randy LaPolla & Dhanesh Jain The Slavonic Languages The Indo-European Languages Edited by Bernard Comrie Edited by Paolo Ramat & Greville B. Corbett & Anna Giacalone The Tai-Kadai Languages The Iranian Languages Edited by Anthony Diller & Edited by Gemot Windfuhr Jerold A. Edmondson The Khoesan Languages The Turkic Languages Edited by Rainer Vossen Edited by Lars Johanson & Eva Csato The Manchu-Tungusic Languages The Uralic Languages Edited by Alexander Vovin Edited by Daniel Abondolo First Published in 2003 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2003 George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain, selection and editorial matter; the contributors, their own chapters Typeset in Times by LaserScript Ltd, Mitcham, Surrey Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshiref« * All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-7007-1130-9 CONTENTS Preface General abbreviations List of maps List of figures List of contributors 1 General introduction George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain 2 Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages Dhanesh Jain 3 Writing systems of the Indo-Aryan languages Richard Salomon 4 Sanskrit George Cardona 5 Asokan Prakrit and Pali Thomas Oberlies 6 Prakrits and Apabhramsa Vit Bubenik 7 Hindi Michael C, Shapiro 8 Urdu Ruth Laila Schmidt 9 Bangla Probal Dasgupta 10 Asamiya G. C. Goswami and Jyotiprakash Tamuli 11 Oriya Tapas S. Ray 12 Maithili Ramawatar Yadav 13 Magahi Sheela Verma 14 Bhojpuri Manindra K. Verma vi THE IN DO-A RYAN LANGUAGES 15 Nepali 538 Theodore Riccardi „ _ 16 Panjabi 581 , Christopher Shackle 17 Sindhi 622 Lachman M Khubchandarti 18 Gujarati 659 George Cardona and Babu Suthar 19 Marathi 698 Rajeshwari Pandharipande 20 Konkani 729 Rocky V. Miranda 21 Sinhala 766 James W> Gair 22 Dardic 818 Elena Bashir 23 Kashmiri 895 Omkar N. Koul General index 953 Language index 976 Index of cited passages 1056 PREFACE » In November 1996, Jonathan Price of Curzon Press approached George Cardona with a request to edit a volume on the Indo-Aryan languages as one of a series of what he called 'language-family descriptive books'. This would be an apt characterization of Sir George Abraham Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, the final volume of which appeared in 1928, Despite the undisputed and well deserved high standing of Grierson's survey, it is inevitably out of date, Jules Bloch's L'Indo-aryen du veda aux temps modernes, translated into English by Alfred Master, is a magnificent overview of historical changes in Indo-Aryan and of course involves summary characterizations of its different stages, but this was not intended to supply descriptions of even the major languages. Colin P. Masica's more recent work, The Indo-Aryan Languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), though of a very high quality, makes no pretence at giving full descriptive statements about the languages* Moreover, new data have been and continue to be made available, especially for Dardic, In view of all this, the time appeared propitious for such a new enterprise. It seemed difficult, however, for a single person to carry out the editorial work, especially since many of the contributions would appropriately be by scholars in India. Dhanesh Jain agreed to serve as coeditor, and we undertook the work. It was decided that The Indo-Aryan Languages should include descriptions not only of the major modern Indo-Aryan languages but also of Old Indo-Aryan and Middle Indo- Aryan as well as a general introduction, thus ensuring a historical as well as a synchronic perspective. In addition, chapters on the writing systems used for Indo-Aryan languages and on aspects of the sociolinguistics of these languages were deemed desirable. Originally, we envisioned also chapters on the typological characteristics and subgroupings of modern Indo-Aryan languages. The scholar who was the obvious first choice to write on these topics, however, declined our invitation and the second scholar who was invited also declined, pleading that the data available and the research done to date would make a contribution of his largely redundant in view of the fairly recent contributions on this topic by Masica and Ramanujan. In addition, considerable work remains to be done before a detailed picture of subgroups of modern Indo-Aryan languages is arrived at which could possibly command consensus. Accordingly, we have had to do without the chapters originally planned for and have made do by referring to recent work in this area (see sections 1.3.2 and 1,4 of the general introduction in this volume). As can be seen from the table of contents, the modern languages included in this volume have been arranged as follows. Beginning with the major national languages - Hindi, Urdu, Bangla - we proceed to languages reflecting broad typological divisions, from east to west and southwest, ending with the isolate Sinhala and with Dardic, devoting a separate chapter to Kashmiri. One feature which was imposed on us by circumstance is that Indo-Aryan languages in the diaspora outside the subcontinent area have not been dealt with separately, although we originally envisioned including a chapter on Indo-Aryan languages in migration. vii viii THE IN DO-A RYAN LANGUAGES The task of selecting and inviting contributors, although for the most part fairly straightforward, was made difficult by one circumstance. Sad to say, it is hard to find scholars to compose acceptable contemporary descriptions of certain languages, especially relatively minor ones such as the languages of Rajasthan and PahadI languages, This is all the more regrettable because the study of such languages could yield important insights into questions of language migration and transitional areas, Invitations were sent to select scholars in late August of 1997, and contributions were to be in the hands of the editors by the end of 1998. Some of those we approached, however, had to decline our invitation due to prior commitments or considerations of age and health, two others withdrew after agreeing to contribute, and one contributor withdrew because he could not agree to modify .a script found unacceptable. Unfortunately, after these developments we could not find any one to compose a chapter on Marwari or other languages of Rajasthan. On the other hand, Vit Bubenik and Lachman Khubchandani graciously stepped in to supply chapters on later Prakrits and Sindhi respectively, and Professor G. C. Goswami kindly agreed to serve as coauthor of the chapter on Asamiya. After such matters were settled, the chapters and contributors shown in the table of contents were made final. In addition, maps were drawn up, We express our thanks to Elena Bashir for composing the map of Dardic and Nuristani. We are grateful to all the scholars who have contributed to this volume not only for the care with which they prepared their chapters but also for their spirit of cooperation in considering suggestions made by the editors. As editors, however, we felt we could not impose on individual scholars our judgements of data with which they might not agree. Nor could we require that they deal with their subjects all in the same manner, except for a general style sheet which was agreed upon beforehand. Consequently, the reader will notice considerable variation both in the scope of treatment - for example, with only phonology and morphology treated in one chapter - and in the manner of treating and presenting data. k The original intention was that this volume should appear late in the year 2000, and most contributors were extremely cooperative, with the greater part of chapters in the hands of the editors by the end of 1998. Due to the complications noted earlier, however, some contributions could not reach us until mid-June of 2000. These. delays, nevertheless, served a purpose, in that original contributors could modify their chapters so as to make later editorial work easier. The complete edited set of contributions was submitted to the publisher on 30 June 2000. Contributors have made every effort possible to make their work up to' date, including renewed fieldwork. Nevertheless, in view of the time at which contributions were composed and submitted, authors could not take into consideration the recognition of three new states: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Uttaranchal. Obviously, materials published after final submissions could not be included, so that this' book will immediately be out of date in some respects. This is especially true with respect to the ongoing efforts and discussions concerning the Indus Valley materials and the question of the Indo-Aryan homeland (see general introduction, section 3). For example, recent work on the Indus script (Natwar Jha and N. S. Rajaram, The Deciphered Indus Script: Methodology, Readings, Interpretations, Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2000) and' on evidence in the Rgveda concerning the history of Indo-Aryans (Shrikant Talageri, Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2000), as well as Michael Witzel's even more recent article 'Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts' (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7.3 [May 25, 2001) PREFACE ix appeared too late to be taken into consideration in the general introduction. Nor has it been possible to discuss the import of chariots with spoked wheels, already well known in the Rgveda, a subject which recently has given rise to extended discussions in the electronic discussion group Indology. Suffice it to say that, in our opinion, M. Sparreboom's Chariots in the Veda (Memoirs of the Kern Institute No. 3, Leiden; E. J, Brill, 1985) represents the most complete and judicious treatment of the available literary evidence. Despite such inevitable omissions, we have reason to hope the present volume will give readers a fair and well founded picture of the Indo-Aryan languages and their background. George Cardona, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Dhanesh Jain, Delhi Postscript We wish to thank the editorial staff of Ratna Sagar, Delhi, for their help in producing the indexes. GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations are listed in upper case characters. They are used also in various formats: all caps, small caps, lower case, for different purposes. These are clear from the contexts in which authors have used the abbreviations, and it was thought unnecessary and unwise to impose a single format for the entire volume. IP first person 1PROX first proximal 2P second person 2PI second person intimate 2PN second person neutral 2PROX second proximal 3P third person 0 nominative/deleted noun phrase - Marathi A actual ABL ablative ACC accusative ACT active ADC anaphoric deictic category ADJ adjective ADV adverb ADV PTCPL adverbial participle AG agent AGN agentive AGR agreement AMC assertion marker clitic ANIM animate AOR aorist APH anaphoric deictic category ASP aspirated AUG augment AUX auxiliary C consonant CAUS causative CL classifier CLT clitic COLL collective COM1T comitative . COMP complement x GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS xi COMPR comparison COMPV comparative COMPRV PTCLE comparative particle COMPZ complementizer CON continuous CONC concessive COND/CONDIT conditional CONJ conjunction CONJT conjunctive CONJT PTCPL conjunctive participle CONT contingent COR correlative COR EQ correlative equative CP conjunctive participle COR MAR correlative marker CV compound verb DAT dative DDC distal deictic category DEF definite DEM demonstrative DIR direct (case) DIST distal DO direct object DU dual EMPHR emphasizer EMPH(T) emphatic EQ equative ERG ergative EXCL exclusive EXH exhortative F feminine F future (in the abbreviation P/F) FAM familiar FOC focusing (clefting) form of verb FOR formal FUT future G gender GEN genitive GER gerund GERC gerciple GERDV gerundive HAB habitual HI high HON honorific
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