Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship with Well-Being By Alexander Mathew

263 Pages·2008·0.81 MB·English

i

Individual Differences in Gratitude and Their Relationship
with Well-Being

By

Alexander Mathew Wood

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology

University of Warwick, Department of Psychology
May 2008
ii

Dedication

To Stephen Joseph,
My mentor and friend.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents.........................................................................................i
List of Tables...............................................................................................vii
List of Figures..............................................................................................viii
Acknowledgements......................................................................................ix
Declaration and Inclusion of Material from a Prior Thesis.........................xi
Note on Inclusion of Published Work..........................................................xii
Note on Supporting Material.......................................................................xiii
List of Abbreviations...................................................................................xiv
General Abstract..........................................................................................xv
1. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: GRATITUDE, POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY,
AND WELL-BEING.......................................................................................1
1.1. Positive Psychology...........................................................................2
1.1.1. Development of a Deficit Orientation..........................................3
1.1.2. The Need for Positive Psychology...............................................4
1.1.3. The Positive Psychology Movement...........................................6
1.2 Gratitude.............................................................................................7
1.2.1. State Gratitude.............................................................................8
1.2.2. Measuring Trait Gratitude............................................................11
1.2.3. Correlations Between Gratitude and Well-being.........................14
1.2.4. Causality Between Gratitude and Well-being..............................17
1.2.5. Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Gratitude and
Well-being...................................................................................................19
1.2.6. Gratitude and Physical Health.....................................................21
1.3. Overview of Thesis............................................................................21
2. CHAPTER 2. A SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF TRAIT AND STATE LEV-
ELS OF GRATITUDE.....................................................................................23
2.1. Abstract..............................................................................................23
2.2. Introduction........................................................................................24
2.3. Study 1...............................................................................................28
2.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................28
2.3.2. Method.........................................................................................28
2.3.2.1. Participants.............................................................................28
2.3.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................28
2.3.3. Results..........................................................................................30
2.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................32
2.4. Study 2...............................................................................................32
2.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................32
2.4.2. Method.........................................................................................33
2.4.2.1. Participants.............................................................................33
2.4.2.2. Design and Procedure............................................................34
2.4.2.3. Measures................................................................................34
2.4.2.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................35
2.4.3. Results..........................................................................................35
2.4.3.1. Path Model.............................................................................36
2.4.4. Discussion....................................................................................37
2.5. Study 3...............................................................................................37
2.5.1. Introduction..................................................................................37
2.5.2. Method.........................................................................................38
ii
2.5.2.3. Measures................................................................................40
2.5.2.3.1. Measures from Study 2....................................................40
2.5.2.3.1. Big Five............................................................................40
2.5.3. Results..........................................................................................40
2.5.3.1. Experimental Analysis...........................................................40
2.5.3.2. Moderation.............................................................................41
2.5.3.2. Testing the Full Model...........................................................43
2.6. General Discussion............................................................................44
2.7. Appendix............................................................................................49
3. CHAPTER 3. CONCEPTUALISING GRATITUDE AND APPRECIATION AS AN
UNITARY PERSONALITY TRAIT..................................................................50
3.1. Abstract..............................................................................................50
3.2. Introduction........................................................................................51
3.3. Study 1...............................................................................................54
3.3.1. Method.........................................................................................54
3.3.1.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................54
3.3.1.2. Measures................................................................................54
3.3.1.2.1. GQ6..................................................................................54
3.3.1.2.1. Appreciation Scale...........................................................54
3.3.1.2.3. GRAT...............................................................................55
3.2.2. Results..........................................................................................55
3.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis...........................................................55
3.3.2.2. Factor Analysis...................................................................55
3.3.3. Discussion....................................................................................58
3.4. Study 2...............................................................................................59
3.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................59
3.4.2. Method.........................................................................................59
3.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................59
3.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................60
3.4.2.2.1. From Study 1..................................................................60
3.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding.......................................60
3.4.3. Results..........................................................................................60
3.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................60
3.4.3.2. Multigroup CFA....................................................................61
3.4.3.3. Social desirability..................................................................62
3.5. General Discussion............................................................................64
4. CHAPTER 4. GRATITUDE UNIQUELY PREDICTS SATISFACTION WITH
LIFE: INCREMENTAL VALIDITY ABOVE THE DOMAINS AND FACETS OF
THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL.........................................................................67
4.1. Abstract..............................................................................................67
4.2. Introduction........................................................................................68
4.3. Method...............................................................................................72
4.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................72
4.3.1. Measures
4.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................72
4.3.2.2. Big Five..................................................................................73
4.3.2.2. Satisfaction with Life.............................................................73
4.4. Results................................................................................................74
4.4.1. Correlations Between Gratitude, SWL, and the Big Five............74
4.4.2. Incremental Validity....................................................................76
iii
4.5. Discussion..........................................................................................77
5. CHAPTER 5. GRATITUDE PREDICTS PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
ABOVE THE BIG FIVE FACETS...................................................................81
5.1. Abstract..............................................................................................81
5.2 Introduction.........................................................................................82
5.3 Method................................................................................................86
5.3.1. Participants and Procedure...........................................................86
5.3.2. Measures......................................................................................87
5.3.2.1. Gratitude................................................................................87
5.3.2.2. PWB.......................................................................................87
5.3.2.3. The Domains And Facets of the Big Five..............................87
5.4. Results................................................................................................88
5.4. Correlations Between Gratitude and the Big Five..........................88
5.4.2. Correlations Between Gratitude and PWB...............................88
5.4.3. Incremental Validity of Gratitude in Predicting PWB..............90
5.5. Discussion..........................................................................................90
6. CHAPTER 6. THE ROLE OF GRATITUDE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL
SUPPORT, STRESS, AND DEPRESSION: TWO LONGITUDINAL STUDIES........94
6.1. Abstract..............................................................................................94
6.2. Introduction........................................................................................95
6.2.1. Models of Directionality..............................................................97
6.3. Study 1...............................................................................................101
6.3.1. Method.........................................................................................102
6.3.1.2. Participants and Procedure.....................................................102
6.3.1.3. Measures................................................................................103
6.3.1.3.1. Gratitude..........................................................................103
6.3.1.3.2. Social Support..................................................................104
6.3.1.3.3. Depression........................................................................104
6.3.1.3.4. Stress................................................................................105
6.3.1.4. Data Analysis.........................................................................105
6.3.1.4.1. Testing Models 1 to 4......................................................105
6.3.1.4.2. Testing Model 5...............................................................108
6.3.2. Results..........................................................................................110
6.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................110
6.3.2.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................110
6.3.2.3. Mediational Models...............................................................113
6.3.3. Brief Discussion...........................................................................114
6.4. Study 2...............................................................................................114
6.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................114
6.4.2. Method.........................................................................................115
6.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................116
6.4.2.2 Measures.................................................................................116
6.4.2.2.1. Measures from Study 1....................................................116
6.4.2.2.2. Depression........................................................................116
6.4.2.2.3. Big Five............................................................................116
6.4.2.3. Data Analysis.........................................................................118
6.4.3. Results..........................................................................................118
6.4.3.1. Preliminary Analysis..............................................................118
6.4.3.2. Model Comparisons...............................................................118
6.4.3.3. Mediational Models...............................................................121
iv
6.4.4. Discussion......................................................................................122
6.5. General Discussion..............................................................................122
6.5.1. Implications...................................................................................123
6.5.2. Limitations.....................................................................................124
7. CHAPTER 7. COPING STYLE AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCE OF
GRATEFUL PEOPLE.......................................................................................128
7.1. Abstract................................................................................................128
7.2. Introduction..........................................................................................129
7.3. Method.................................................................................................134
7.3.1. Participants.....................................................................................134
7.3.2. Measures........................................................................................135
7.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................135
7.3.2.2. COPE.......................................................................................135
7.3.2.3. Brief COPE..............................................................................135
7.3.2.4. Perceived Stress.......................................................................136
7.3.2.5. Depression...............................................................................136
7.3.2.6. Happiness.................................................................................136
7.3.2.7. Satisfaction with Life Scale.....................................................137
7.3.3. Procedure.......................................................................................137
7.4. Results..................................................................................................137
7.4.1. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Coping Strategies137
7.4.2. Testing the Relationship Between Gratitude and Well-being........139
7.4.3. Testing the Relationship Between Coping Strategies and Well-being140
7.4.4. Testing Whether Coping Mediates the Relationship Between Gratitude
and Well-being...............................................................................................140
7.5. Discussion............................................................................................142
7.5.1. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................142
7.5.2. Partial Mediation............................................................................143
7.5.3. Limitations.....................................................................................144
7.5.4. Future Directions...........................................................................145
7.5.5. Conclusions....................................................................................146
8. CHAPTER 8. GRATITUDE INFLUENCES SLEEP THROUGH THE MECHA-
NISM OF PRE-SLEEP COGNITIONS................................................................148
8.1. Abstract................................................................................................148
8.2. Introduction..........................................................................................149
8.3. Method.................................................................................................152
8.3.1. Participants and Procedure.............................................................152
8.3.2. Measures........................................................................................152
8.3.2.1. Gratitude..................................................................................152
8.3.2.2. Pre-Sleep Cognitions...............................................................153
8.3.2.3. Sleep.........................................................................................153
8.3.2.4. Big Five....................................................................................154
8.3.2.5. Social Desirability....................................................................154
8.4. Results..................................................................................................154
8.5. Discussion............................................................................................156
9. CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION........................................................................160
9.1. Summary..............................................................................................160
9.2. Future Directions for Gratitude Research............................................164
9.2.1. Conceptualizing Gratitude and Appreciation.................................164
9.2.2. Incremental Validity of Gratitude..................................................165
v
9.2.3. Gratitude and Well-being over Time.............................................166
9.2.4. Gratitude and Coping.....................................................................167
9.2.5. Gratitude and Sleep........................................................................168
9.2.6. Other Directions.............................................................................169
9.3. Conclusion...........................................................................................171
10. REFERENCES...........................................................................................173
11. APPENDIX. THE AUTHENTIC PERSONALITY: A THEORETICAL AND EM-
PRICAL CONCEPUTALIZATION, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AUTHEN-
TICITY SCALE................................................................................................199
11.1. Abstract..............................................................................................199
11.2. Introduction........................................................................................200
11.2.1. Authenticity and Well-being........................................................203
11.3. Study 1...............................................................................................206
11.3.1. Introduction..................................................................................206
11.3.2. Method.........................................................................................206
11.3.2.1. Development of the Item Pool...............................................206
11.3.2.2. Sample and Procedure...........................................................207
11.3.2.3. Measures................................................................................208
11.3.2.3.1. Authenticity Item Pool.....................................................208
11.3.2.3.2. Anxiety.............................................................................208
11.3.2.3.3. Stress................................................................................208
11.3.2.3.4. Happiness.........................................................................209
11.3.3. Results..........................................................................................209
11.3.3.1. Factor Analysis of the Initial Item Pool.................................209
11.3.3.2. Development of the Authenticity Scale.................................212
11.3.3.3. Authenticity and Subjective Well-being................................213
11.3.4. Discussion....................................................................................213
11.4. Study 2...............................................................................................214
11.4.1. Introduction..................................................................................214
11.4.1.1. Multigroup CFA....................................................................214
11.4.1.2. Discriminant Validity............................................................215
11.4.1.3. Authenticity and Well-being..................................................216
11.4.2. Method.........................................................................................216
11.4.2.1. Participants and Procedure.....................................................216
11.4.2.1.1. Sample 1 (Ethnically Diverse Sample)............................216
11.4.2.1.2. Sample 2 (College Student Sample A)............................217
11.4.2.1.3. Sample 3 (College Student Sample B).............................218
11.4.2.1.4. Sample 3 (Community Sample).......................................218
11.4.2.2. Measures................................................................................219
11.4.2.2.1. Socially Desirable Responding........................................219
11.4.2.2.2. Big Five............................................................................220
11.4.2.2.3. Sixth Factor of Personality..............................................220
11.4.2.2.4. Self-esteem.......................................................................220
11.4.2.2.5. Life Satisfaction...............................................................221
11.4.2.2.6. Affect...............................................................................221
11.4.2.2.7. Scales of Psychological Well-being.................................221
11.4.2.2.8. Gratitude..........................................................................222
11.4.3. Results..........................................................................................223
11.5.3.1. Descriptive Statistics.............................................................223
11.5.3.2. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis...........................223
vi
11.4.3.3. Factor Loadings....................................................................227
11.4.3.4. Comparing One and Three Factor Models...........................228
11.4.3.5. Reliability and validity..........................................................228
11.4.3.5.1. Test-Retest Reliability....................................................228
11.4.3.5.2. Discriminant Validity From the Big Five.......................229
11.4.3.6. Correlations with Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-being..231
11.4.3.6.1. Self-esteem......................................................................231
11.4.3.6.2. Subjective Well-being.....................................................231
11.4.3.6.3. Psychological Well-being...............................................233
11.5. Discussion and General Discussion...................................................233
11.5.1. Directions for future research......................................................236
11.6. References..........................................................................................239
11.7. Appendix............................................................................................247
vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. Description of the scales with characteristic items.....................52
Table 3.2. Internal consistencies and Intercorrelations in Study 1 (above di-
agonal) and Study 2 (below diagonal), with correlations corrected for unreli-
ability in brackets.........................................................................................56
Table 3.3. Factor loadings for Study 1 and 2...............................................58
Table 4.1. Correlations between the NEO and Gratitude and SWL............75
Table 5.1. Correlations between the facets of the Big Five and gratitude,
PWB, and satisfaction with life...................................................................89
Table 5.2. Summary of six hierarchical multiple regressions to test the incre-
mental validity of gratitude..........................................................................91
Table 6.1. Six models of possible longitudinal relationships between grati-
tude, stress, depression, and social support..................................................97
Table 6.2. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 1 vari-
ables.............................................................................................................109
Table 6.3. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 in Study 1........................112
Table 6.4. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between Study 2 vari-
ables.............................................................................................................117
Table 6.5. Comparisons between Models 1 to 4 (with the effect of the Big
Five covaried) in Study 2.............................................................................119
Table 7.1. Descriptive statistics of the coping scales, and correlations between
coping styles and dispositional gratitude.....................................................138
Table 7.2. Correlations between gratitude and well-being (zero-order and con-
trolling for the effects of coping strategies..................................................139
Table 11.1. Communalities and factor loadings from the exploratory factor
analysis (Study 1).........................................................................................211
Table 11.2. Preliminary correlations between the Authenticity Scale and sub-
jective well-being (Study 1).........................................................................213
Table 11.3. Descriptive statistics and scale intercorrelations (Study 2)......224
Table 11.4. Results from the multigroup CFA............................................226
Table 11.5. Two and four week test-retest...................................................229
Table 11.6. Summary of zero-order correlations and four multiple regressions
of the Big Five on the Authenticity Scale....................................................230
Table 11.7. Authenticity and subjective well-being....................................232
Table 11.8. Authenticity and psychological well-being..............................234
viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. A theoretical model of trait and state levels of gratitude...........25
Figure 2.2. A structural equation model, Study 1........................................31
Figure 2.3. A path diagram based on multilevel modeling, Study 2...........36
Figure 2.4. Two structural equation models, Study 3..................................42
Figure 3.1. CFA using all Study 2 participants............................................63
Figure 6.1. Models 1 to 4.............................................................................106
Figure 6.2. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in
Study 2.........................................................................................................111
Figure 6.3. The results of the structural equation analysis for Model 1 in
Study 3.........................................................................................................120
Figure 7.1. Path diagram of coping partially mediating the relationship be-
tween gratitude and stress in Sample 1........................................................142
Figure 8.1. Tests of mediation between gratitude and five sleep measures.157
Figure 11.1. The person centered conception of authenticity......................201
Figure 11.2: Diagram of the confirmatory factor analysis, with item and latent
variable loadings..........................................................................................228