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Pushpita Das IndIa’s approach to Border ManageMent From Barriers to Bridges This book attempts to provide a comprehensive understanding of the circumstances which have shaped India’s approach towards its international borders and the framework it has developed to better manage its borders. The book argues that persistence of various cross-border threats and challenges and an absence of robust intra-regional trade among its neighbouring countries forced India to employ a security-centric and unilateral approach to border management with emphasis on hardening the borders to cross-border trade and travel and keeping the border areas underdeveloped to act as a buffer against external conventional threats. However, as India’s economy grew and the country gained more confidence and resources, India started perceiving the borders as bridges rather than barriers. Consequently, greater emphasis was being laid on development of border areas and restoring severed lines of communication with its neighbours through increased investments in building transportation networks both within the border as well as beyond. It also started constructively engaging its neighbours to effectively manage its international borders. Besides discussing the threats and challenges that India faces along the borders, the book aims to develop an understanding of India’s border management practices by analysing various programmes and initiatives such as the raising of border guarding forces; building of physical and electronic fences; the establishment of modern facilities for smoothening legitimate cross-border travel; the development of the border areas through special programmes; and increasing trade and connectivity as well as other cooperative bilateral mechanisms. Dr. Pushpita Das is Research Fellow and Coordinator of the Internal Security Centre at the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP- IDSA), New Delhi. Her areas of research include border security and management, coastal security, drug trafficking, migration, and India’s Northeast. Dr. Das has written extensively on her areas of research including: monographs titled Illegal Migration from Bangladesh: Deportation, Fences, Work Permit (2016) and Coastal Security: the Indian Approach (2013); and a number of articles and commentaries in journals and books. Dr. Pushpita Das holds a Doctorate from the Jawaharlal Nehru University. IndIa’s approach to Border ManageMent From Barriers to Bridges Pushpita Das KNOWLEDGE WORLD KW Publishers Pvt Ltd New Delhi First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi The right of Pushpita Das to be identiﬁed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiﬁcation and explanation without intent to infringe. Print edition not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan or Bhutan) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781032430119 (hbk) ISBN: 9781032430126 (pbk) ISBN: 9781003365327 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365327 Typeset in Adobe Caslon Pro by KW Publishers, Delhi To Kalyan... Contents List of Tables and Maps ix Acknowledgements xi Introduction xiii 1. Security Threats to India’s Borders 1 2. Guarding the Borders 41 3. Border Infrastructure: Fences and Equipment 69 4. Strategic Roads and Railways in the Border Areas 96 5. Regulating India’s Borders: Cross Border Movement 117 6. Integrated Check Posts and Land Customs Stations 153 7. Border Area Development Programme 176 8. Connectivity in Border Areas: A Case of the Northeast 198 9. Cross-border Connectivity 225 10. Border Trade 251 viii • India’s Approach to Border Management 11. Bilateral Institutional Mechanisms 286 The Next Steps 324 Bibliography 332 Index 357 List of Tables and Maps Tables Table 1: Battalions and BOPs on Various International Borders 59 Table 2: Share of India’s Trade through Land Borders in 2017-2018 155 Table 3: Location of ICPs under Phase I 162 Table 4: Location of ICPs under Phase II 170 Table 5: Programmes under BADP in the Seventh Five Year Plan 181 Table 6: Road Connectivity 1949-1965 200 Table 7: Roads in NEFA 201 Table 8: Roads Sanctioned under Prime Minister’s Initiative in 2000 209 Table 9: Gauge Conversion Projects 212 Table 10: Status of Connectivity to Capital Cities in the Northeast 212 Table 11: Rail-Road Connectivity between India and Bangladesh 233 Maps Map 1: Road Network (BRO Roads 1961-62) 102 Map 2: Railway Network 107 Map 3: Integrated Check Posts 170 Map 4: Railway Network – Northeast 214 Map 5: Border Trading Points/Haats 258