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254 Pages·2001·4.175 MB·English
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Title Pages In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers Mary Douglas Print publication date: 2001 Print ISBN-13: 9780199245413 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: October 2011 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245413.001.0001 Title Pages (p.i) In the Wilderness (p.ii) (p.iii) In the Wilderness (p.iv) Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University′s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai  Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Sheffield Academic Press 1993 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Page 1 of 2 Title Pages Database right Oxford University Press (maker) Reprinted 2004 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover And you must impose this same condition on any acquirer ISBN 978-0-19-924541-3 Page 2 of 2 In the Wilderness…In the Days of Her Youth In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers Mary Douglas Print publication date: 2001 Print ISBN-13: 9780199245413 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: October 2011 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245413.001.0001 (p.v) In the Wilderness…In the Days of Her Youth ‘These are the statutes which the Lord commanded Moses, as between a man and his wife, and between a father and his daughter, while in her youth, in her father's house’ (Num. 30.16). ‘Thus says, the Lord, I remember the devotion of your youth, your love as a bride, how you followed me in the wilderness, in a land not sown’ (Jer. 2.2). ‘Therefore, behold, I will allure her, and bring her into the wilderness, and speak tenderly to her…and there she shall answer as in the days of her youth and as at the time when she came up out of the land of Egypt…And I will betroth you to me forever; yea, I will betroth you to me in righteousness and in justice, and in steadfast love, and in mercy. I will betroth you to me in faithfulness, and you shall know the Lord’ (Hos. 2.14–20). (p.vi) Page 1 of 1 Illustration In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers Mary Douglas Print publication date: 2001 Print ISBN-13: 9780199245413 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: October 2011 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245413.001.0001 Illustration (p.xi) (p.xii) Descendants of Ham Descendants of Shem Page 1 of 2 Preface to the Paperback Edition In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers Mary Douglas Print publication date: 2001 Print ISBN-13: 9780199245413 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: October 2011 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245413.001.0001 (p.xiii) Preface to the Paperback Edition Preparing a new edition, a friend told me, is like ‘confession with a firm purpose of amendment’. This paperback edition of In the Wilderness is not a new edition in the full sense; the original book has not been revised, no new bits added or old bits suppressed. In default, an extended preface gives me a chance to confess my errors and thank my critics. There are also points of disagreement, on which I will try to make my views more persuasive. First I must thank Oxford University Press for bringing out a paperback edition of this book on Numbers (which was originally published by Sheffield Academic Press) at the same time as a paperback of Leviticus as Literature. 1 It is good that they should be together since Leviticus and the book of Numbers are already a pair, assumed to have been edited by the same person/persons, or at least to stem from the same priestly milieu, and at about the same time. My two books on them are also a pair; the second depends on the first. The work I had done earlier on Numbers is the foundation for how I approached Leviticus. For example, I naturally carried over to Leviticus the prejudice in favour of the priestly editor that I had formed while studying Numbers. I start with an absurd mistake that was passed over by most of the reviewers in charitable silence. It is like saying left instead of right, or east instead of west; there is no defending it, only confession. On p. 100 a diagram made Abraham look like the ancestor of Noah (p. 101). What I had in mind is explained correctly on the previous page. I had been struck with the thought that Numbers takes up themes of fraternal rivalry from Genesis, and produces developments or commentaries on them, but in reverse order. For example, at the beginning of Genesis Canaan is cursed by Noah, his grandfather (9.25), and the curse has its effect at the end of Numbers when the armies of Israel (p.xiv) defeat the Canaanites (31). At the end of Genesis the dying Joseph foretells that God will bring the sons of Israel to the land he has promised them (50.24), which links Page 1 of 12 Preface to the Paperback Edition directly to the beginning of Numbers where the arms-bearing men of Israel are numbered in readiness to fight for the land. It would have been much simpler to show it as a ring, one side of which is the Genesis sequence, taken up chiastically by the Numbers sequence. The other criticisms are more important. Who was the Priestly Editor? There has been some discussion about whether it is acceptable for me to treat Leviticus and Numbers as two separate books. True, they are more like major sections of one vaster work, the Pentateuch, and no one could seriously dispute their elaborate intermeshing with each other and with the other ‘books’, nor do we want to quibble about the word ‘book’. I could use the word ‘composition’ quite comfortably, but I am impressed by the compositional differences, by the independence from each other of the two literary patterns, and by the completeness of their execution. It is worth insisting on these differences and it seems to be unlikely that the same editor (philosopher or poet) could have achieved two equally splendid and equally polished compositions in one lifetime. It is possible, but it would be a stupendous achievement. There are many differences between what I am calling two books because one is centred on the tabernacle, the other an epic journey and war history. As far as theology and the cult are concerned, their agreement is close. There certainly could have been one priestly editor, or a school of priestly editors who used the same linguistic resources and stock of ideas, and whose members may have taken up the task at different times. The priestly editor is called P in the context of the documentary hypothesis which stratifies the Pentateuch into different authorial periods based on putative documents, identified as J, E, P and D. The immensely learned philological debate about P is very technical. The general questions which underlie it are somewhat like those debated in Homeric scholarship at the beginning of the twentieth century. Two conversations were running along parallel lines, taking little notice of each other. Who was Homer? Who was P? What was he like? Was he one person or several? How could one poet alone be responsible for such an enormous achievement? Was Homer literate? Did he write down the Iliad himself? Are the repetitions in P evidence of an oral tradition? (p.xv) Homer never lacked admiration, but P used to have many detractors. It is distressing to see how unkindly he has been treated by important biblical scholars. Wellhausen started with an assumption about how religion would develop. He saw it as originally spontaneous and direct, but moving inevitably towards bureaucratization and meaningless rituals with its ministers passionless and remote from the congregation. This chimed with the passage in Isaiah and Psalms in which God rejects sacrifice and demands a humble and contrite heart; and it chimes with our own denominational history. The effect was that the Page 2 of 12 Preface to the Paperback Edition priestly books were all too lightly dismissed by prejudiced scholarship; and not so long ago. Writing as late as the 1960s Martin Noth, a great Bible scholar, saw Leviticus as a codex of regulations, 'mostly concerned with daily life and its different circumstances and activities. In its transmitted form, this codex is indeed remarkably diverse and disordered. Even the apparently capricious and random alternations between second person singular and third plural…show that the whole probably took shape as part of a fairly long and complicated process…The different departments of life were arranged very much at random.2 He was similarly convinced that the book of Numbers was an incoherent jumble: ‘There can be no question of the unity of the Book of Numbers, nor of its originating from the hand of a single author. This is already clear from the confusion and lack of order in its contents.’3 He regarded Numbers as ‘a multiplicity of texts’ that had been quite carelessly put together. Conformably with the practice of source critics, even though he felt unable to assign its parts among the recognized Pentateuchal sources, his main effort was to assign primary and secondary character to individual bits. This is the practice that, for a long time, has stopped the book from being read as a whole. The obscurities in the law books seems to have given free rein to nineteenth century imperial prejudices against primitive mentality, culture and magic, and to the anticlerical prejudices of our own nonconformist tradition against dark superstition and the dead hand of hierarchy. To my mind the biggest insult to the priestly editors was to expect their texts would not make sense. Many would still agree with Lester Grabbe who starts his book on Leviticus saying: ‘No other book of the Bible is less appealing, at first sight, to the modem student of theology than Leviticus.4 Dating and History (p.xvi) Many reviews of In the Wilderness made criticisms of the kind that a writer must humbly accept. These were mostly in the domain of history. I could never develop or defend an independent conclusion about the probable dating of Numbers or Leviticus. My principal mentor, Jacob Milgrom, takes a complex view of the dating issues: some parts of Leviticus and Numbers are very, very old, perhaps even premonarchical, and, at the same time, their editing into the literary form we know could have been very late: in the sixth century BCE, exilic, or post-exilic. From this I have taken licence to focus only on the final versions, and so indulged my desire to read the book as a whole. The really mysterious thing is that the production of the Pentateuch would have been the most important event of the epoch, world-shaking, and yet nothing is said about it in the contemporary sources. Perhaps the work started during the exile in Babylon, and perhaps it was finished in the period of the second temple community, but, if a learned reviewer5 says that I am 'making some leaps of Page 3 of 12 Preface to the Paperback Edition faith’ in dating Numbers to this period, so be it. The scholars are divided; what can I say? The matter is still very technical. So little is known about the tabernacle at Shiloh and the premonarchical society living at the earliest date attributed to the sources for Numbers and Leviticus that it would be difficult to perform the anthropological exercise of relating a text to its historical context for the earliest date. This may be why I find myself leaning towards the later date, the post-exilic community. In any case, if there was a consensus it had started to crack before I started. Vast new resources on the ancient Near East were available, documentary and archaeological. New vistas were presented on every side. The liberating spirit of the 1960s opened topics that had been closed; a new tolerance flourished in the schools. According to David Noel Freedman the spirit of renewal infected the San Francisco Theological Seminary and the Graduate Theological Union, where he and Jacob Milgrom first met in 1965. From that 'momentous and portentous time’ they have been ‘associated as companions-in-arms in the mighty battles of the Bible, the very serious work of expounding and (p.xvii) interpreting the Torah and Tanakh’.6 Mighty battles! What a far cry from regarding Leviticus as boring. A completely justified criticism is that I know too little about post-exilic Israel. Yes, too true. At the time of writing I thought that Samaria was the main danger recognized by the governors of Judah. Since then, of course, I have been trying to read that complex history. I realize that the province of Judah itself was full of foreign settlements, refugees, merchants, farmers and labourers. The histrionics of Ezra and Nehemiah made me suspect them of paranoia, but I find that historians agree with their assessment of the perils surrounding Judah while they were returning from exile. Israel's political integrity, its very existence, was really at grave risk from the nations playing out the great game of international politics. So Samaria was not the only or main problem, as I imply in this book. At least we can agree that, if the redaction process is dated to the postexilic period, it was a troubled time indeed, and it would have been hard to keep out of politics. We do not know whether the priestly editors were left in the land of Judah when the others were taken into exile. If they had remained they would have been out of sympathy with the returning exiles. The latter, living within closed ranks in their own small enclaves in Babylon, among many other exiled ethnic groups, would be inclined to think of themselves as the elect in a world of saints and sinners; sectarian in the sense that all issues were moral issues, and moral issues all seen in black and white. They would be more suspicious of outsiders. By contrast, the priestly families of pre-exilic times had been leading members of a rich temple community. They would remember the far-reaching contacts with wealthy and influential foreigners that they had enjoyed and knew how much the Page 4 of 12 Preface to the Paperback Edition prosperity of Judah depended on friendly interaction. They would have had deep misgivings about the exclusionary views of the returnees. Moral and Political Concerns The above pre-empts the criticism of several reviewers who rebuked my belief in the Numbers editor's strong political bias. It is an interesting point. Some reviewers regard it as sacrilege to attempt to give (p.xviii) historical context to sacred books which have a timeless vision. It is as if historicizing the priestly editor would besmirch his integrity. To place him in history gives scope for attributing to him motives born of local conflicts and so impugns his divinely inspired insights. I would like to persuade these critics that no harm would come of trying the historical interpretation. The difference between us may come from professional bias. An anthropologist considers that knowledge of the community for whom a text has been composed enhances understanding of its message. Knowing the context is essential for interpretation and detracts not one jot from the authority of the writer. I would still say that politics are the framework for the theological issues of the book of Numbers. Furthermore, I consider the price of refraining from historical interpretation is too high if it means accepting the denigration of the priestly editors. Numbers starts with Moses being told to count the children of Israel, and he does so. The number of the ‘father's houses’ or tribes descended from the sons of Jacob, is twelve. There are other countings in the course of the story, and each time there are always twelve tribes. Attributing the book to the second temple period has the advantage of providing a plausible reason for reckoning the twelve tribes, over and over, so prominently. By that time there was only Judah and a remnant of Benjamin. The rest had disappeared into mythology, except for the Josephites (represented by Ephraim) who had been located in Samaria: the remnants of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Politically, Samaria and Judah confronted each other; rival peoples with a common ancestor. It is not safe to jump from the beginnings of the first return to Judah from Babylon in 538 to the return of Ezra in 455. But one can assume that, to a large extent, the problems faced by returning exiles concerning the local populations would have been much the same from the start: problems about land, intermarriage and inheritance. When the Assyrian king defeated Samaria and deported her inhabitants he drafted in thousands of miscellaneous deportees from other conquered lands to replace them. Ezra and Nehemiah seem to have understood that Samaria was now inhabited only by foreign idolaters and refused to have anything to do with them. They made the equivalent assumption that in Judah there were no Judeans or other people of Israel; apart from those who had returned from Babylon the inhabitants were all foreign idolaters. For these leaders the full responsibility for keeping the covenant with God now lay solely with Israel. As they defined her, Israel consisted of the returnees from Babylon (p.xix) inhabiting Judah: a Page 5 of 12 Preface to the Paperback Edition province in great danger, surrounded by idolatrous enemies. But the definition of Israel was too narrow. There would have been numerous heirs to the covenant still living around; many of them in Judah itself, or in the bordering countries. Rather than supposing that he was not involved in politics it was more likely the Numbers editor was making a major political statement against the Persian- backed governors of Judah. Numbers makes sense as an attack on their policy against intermarriage, and particularly as a rebuke to the definition of Israel as consisting only of those who had been to Babylon. In that political climate it would have been bold for these priests to say outright to their congregations, ‘Look, these surrounding peoples (whom our governor tells us to reject) are our brothers. We must cherish them.’ Many passages in the book read as a covert plea on behalf of the other people living in Judah, 'sons of Jacob, but not Jews’, as Rolf Rendtorff puts it.7 The book insists overtly that the ger, the stranger, is entitled to share in the cult (Num. 5.14–16). He has the right to offer sacrifice and he can have atonement made for his unintentional sins (Num. 22–30). It follows that the rules of ritual uncleanness must apply to him because he is entitled to approach the tabernacle. It is fair to read the priestly editor as protesting against the appropriation of the Covenant for a small section of the descendants of Jacob. It was certainly very much his duty as a priest. In this light the Numbers' stories of wars fought by the armies of Israel against the Canaanites, sometimes viewed askance as a glorification of violence and bloodshed, carry another implication. The war stories (19–21) show God's people fighting together, against terrible odds; all twelve tribes marshalled against common enemies. The point is reinforced when the armies of Reuben and Gad, who seem prepared to opt out, are speedily brought back into line (32). If my reading of the political context is right, recalling the wars celebrates the common military past of all these, now scattered, peoples. They have fought together, shoulder to shoulder, and shared in losses and victories; they should stand together and succour each other now. However ancient their sources, there would have been a reason for composing the whole book around these numberings. If it was edited in the tempestuous days of the second temple period, it was probably (p.xx) a brave thing to insist that all of Jacob's twelve sons were heirs to God's promises to Israel. Enclavism Another criticism that I willingly accept concerns the typology of religions that fills the first three chapters of my book.8 The reviewer is quite right in pointing out that I have drawn too sharp a line between the culture of hierarchies and the culture of sectarian religions. This has been borne home to me by two workshops on the culture of the enclave organized subsequently in London.9 Several Jewish friends have told me that Chapter 2, on enclave religion, reminded them vividly of their childhood in a kibbutz, particularly the concern to Page 6 of 12

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