In Sisterhood and Struggle: Black and White Feminisms in the United States During the United

352 Pages·2017·1.66 MB·English

by  Bettina Listl

In Sisterhood and Struggle:
Black and White Feminisms in the United States
During the United Nations Decade for Women,
1975-1985

Inaugural Dissertation
zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie
an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

Vorgelegt von
Bettina Listl, M.A.

aus Schrobenhausen

Oktober 2015
Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Hochgeschwender

Zweitgutachterin: PD Dr. Ursula Prutsch

Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 04.02.2016
Table of Contents

Abbreviations iv
Acknowledgements vi

Introduction 1

I. Social Movement Theory: Understanding Second Wave Feminisms
in the United States 30

1. Second Wave Origins: Developing Feminist Consciousness 31
2. Keeping it Together: Constructing a Collective Identity 38
3. Political Opportunity Structures and Resource Mobilization Theories 43
4. Framing, Discourse, and Resources 53

II. International Women’s Year and the First UN World Conference
in Mexico City, 1975 59

1. The United Nations and Women’s Rights 59
2. Preparing for the First UN World Conference on Women 67
3. The Governmental Conference and the World Plan of Action 75
4. The International Women’s Year Tribune 79
5. Whatever Happened in Mexico? Mixed Receptions at Home 88
6. Inviting Feminist Activism: The National Women’s Agenda 93
7. Feminist Theory Production during the Mid-1970s 97
7.1 White Feminist Theory 98
7.2 Black Feminist Theory 102

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III. Defending Their Turf: The National IWY Conference
in Houston, 1977 110

1. Mobilizing for Women’s Rights 110
2. The Houston Conference: A Peak in Black Feminist Organizing 117
3. Post-Conference Disillusionment: The Carter Administration and
Women’s Rights 124
4. The National Plan of Action and Feminist Activism 128
5. In Black and White: Women of Color Claim Their Feminism 138

IV. Mid-Decade Limbo: The Second UN World Conference
in Copenhagen, 1980 146

1. Not the Seventies, not yet the Eighties: Political Background 147
2. The UN Plans a Second World Conference on Women 149
3. Cold War Politics in Copenhagen: An American Perspective 150
4. American Feminists Prepare for the Mid-Decade Forum 159
5. Global Connections: Forum ’80 163
6. Framed as Failure: Conference Media Coverage in the US 172
7. Feminist Activism in the Early 1980s 176
7.1 The Loss of the ERA 177
7.2 Black Feminists Re-Organize 187
8. A Paradigm Shift in Feminist Theory 192

V. A Change in Perspective: The Third UN World Conference
in Nairobi 201

1. Reagan’s America: A New Era 202
2. Preparations for the Final UN Conference and Forum 208
3. International Tensions and Political Will at the End of the Decade 214
4. Voyage to Kenya: American Feminists Organize for Forum ’85 220
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5. Conflicts of the Past and Strategies for the Future 230
6. The Emergence of a Global Feminism: News From Nairobi 236
7. Same Issues, New Tactics: Feminist Activism in the 1980s 241
8. Intersecting Standpoints: Feminist Theory after 1985 252

Conclusion 260

Bibliography 269

Archival Sources 269
Primary Literature 292
Secondary Literature 311

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Abbreviations

AAUW American Association of University Women
BWA Black Women’s Agenda
BWOA Black Women Organized for Action
BWPA Black Women’s Plan of Action
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination Against Women
CONGO Conference of Non-Governmental
Organizations
CRC Combahee River Collective
CSW Commission on the Status of Women
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council
EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
ERA Equal Rights Amendment
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (UN)
GA General Assembly
ICAW International Council of African Women
IWTC International Women’s Tribune Center
IWY International Women’s Year
NABF National Alliance of Black Feminists
NARAL National Abortion Rights Action League
NBFO National Black Feminist Organization
NCNW National Council of Negro Women
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NOW National Organization for Women
NPA National Plan of Action
NWA National Women’s Agenda
NWAC National Women’s Agenda Coalition
NWCC National Women’s Conference Committee
NWPC National Women’s Political Caucus
iv
NWSA National Women’s Studies Association
PCSW President’s Commission on the Status of
Women
PrepCom Preparatory Committee
SCSW State Commission on the Status of Women
SNCC Student Non-Violent Coordinating
Committee
TWWA Third World Women’s Alliance
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s
Emergency Fund
WAA Women’s Action Alliance
WHO World Health Organization
WPA World Plan of Action
YWCA Young Women’s Christian Association

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Acknowledgements

Researching and writing this dissertation was an extraordinary privilege that
enriched my life in countless ways and would not have been possible without the
unwavering support of numerous people.

I want to thank my advisor, Prof. Dr. Michael Hochgeschwender, for patiently
guiding me through this process. His constructive criticism, helpful suggestions,
and encouragement were vital for the development of my work.

I would also like to thank the Bayerische Amerika Akademie for supporting my
research with a generous travel grant. Since this study relies on archival material,
I am grateful to all the institutions and organizations that gave me access to their
collections and records.

Finally, tribute must be paid to my family and friends for their unending love,
support and strong encouragement. I could not have done this without the help
and understanding of my parents Christa and Johann Listl and my friends
Katrin Trometer, Martina Ruiß, Stefanie Drobnik, Ellen Boschert, Ramona Rid,
Annka Liepold, Cybèle Cochran, Stephanie Hood and Nina Weisser. Special
thanks go to my StaBi-Buddy Veronika Heft who kept me sane during the final
months and became my personal Wonder Woman.
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Introduction

I first became aware of feminism when a friend’s older sister told us about
the women’s movement and the importance of what she called “woman power.”1
At eleven years old, what stuck with us was not the political dimension of the
subject, but the personal. It meant friendship and solidarity. It took me many
more years, experiences of my own, and knowledge about the history of the
systemic gender discrimination that women have endured for so long to
understand sexism and be able to articulate my feminist consciousness.
As an outspoken feminist I dealt with the ridicule and contempt from
many of my teenage peers. During the late 1990s feminism, just like typewriters,
seemed anachronistic to many people my age. Everyone was equal already, so
what was the point? Being a feminist was associated with prudishness,
sullenness, and dogmatism. Gender discrimination was shrugged off as trivial by
young men and women alike. However, I do not think that most of these
women repudiated the feminist label because they did not support feminist
goals. It was rather a combination of a lack of knowledge, fear of being
stereotyped, a desire to be likeable, and a belief in their personal strength.
It turns out that knowledge and experience are key determinants in
developing a feminist consciousness. Most of my friends who sternly rejected
the feminist label throughout school and college claim it now without
hesitation. What has happened in their late 20s and early 30s that suddenly
raised their consciousness? In a nutshell: work, motherhood, and marriage.
After a sheltered existence in the educational system and egalitarian youthful
relationships, life in the “real world” exposed them to a degree of inequality
between men and women that they did not anticipate.

1 This was in 1993, shortly before the Spice Girls entered the scene and infused popular culture
with the highly marketable concept of “girl power,” which was not only used to sell music, but
also fashion and cosmetics. While I cannot say that we were immune to the messages that
reached us over the media in the form of youth magazines and TV, we generally did prefer the
term “woman power” and rejected fashion styles and behavior that we perceived as too “girlish”
or did not correspond with our less commercial musical taste.
1
It is hard for me to tell whether feminism actually has lost much of its
negative stigma or my perception is tainted because of my personal circumstance
and the media I choose to consume.2 Irrespective of my own experience though,
feminism is definitely not dead and discussions about its meaning regularly
garner a lot of public attention.3 A case in point was the media frenzy that
surrounded the movie release of Suffragette in October 2015. When Hollywood
actress Meryl Streep, who stars in the movie alongside Helena Bonham Carter,
Carey Mulligan, Romola Garai, and Anne Marie Duff, refrained from calling
herself a feminist during a promotional interview, she sparked quite the outrage.
The film addresses the British suffrage movement and its turn from
peaceful protest to violent militancy. It depicts events in the years between 1912
and 1913 and is told from the perspective of Mulligan’s working-class character
to convey the struggles of ordinary women instead of those from the middle and
upper-classes who are most often associated with the voting rights movement.4
What can be inferred from the trailer is that Streep’s role as Emmeline
Pankhurst, one of the movement’s leading figures, is a rather minor one.5
Nevertheless, as the movie’s most famous actress, Streep was central to its
promotion. Thus, Time Out London interviewed her as well as Mulligan, Garai,
and Duff for their October 2015 issue and posted interviews and pictures
online. Among other things, every actress was asked the question: “Are you a
feminist?” All but Streep answered “yes.” She said instead: “I’m a humanist, I’m
for nice easy balance.”6 As soon as Streep’s statement appeared online, feminist

2 I want to acknowledge at this point that my idea of feminism is affected by my experiences as a
white, Western European woman of middle-class background with access to higher education.
3 For an exploration of current feminist activities in the US and an overview of the numerous
declarations of feminism’s death in the media, see Jo Reger, Everywhere and Nowhere:
Contemporary Feminism in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 3-30.
4 "'Suffragette' Director Sarah Gavron Talks Feminism, Race, and Meryl Streep: Bust Interview,"
Bust, http://bust.com/suffragette-director-sarah-gavron-talks-feminism-race-meryl-streep-bust-
interview.html.
5 "Suffragette Official Trailer #1 (2015), Carey Mulligan, Meryl Streep Drama," You Tube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=056FI2Pq9RY.
6 Cath Clarke, "Carey Mulligan on Being a Bad-Ass Feminist and Starring in 'Suffragette'," Time
Out London, http://www.timeout.com/london/film/carey-mulligan-on-being-a-bad-ass-feminist-

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