In Defense of Negativity studies in communication,media,and public opinion A series edited by Susan Herbst and Benjamin I.Page In Defense of Negativity attack ads in presidential campaigns John G. Geer TheUniversity of Chicago Press Chicago and London john g.geer is professor of political science at Vanderbilt University. The University of Chicago Press,Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press,Ltd.,London © 2006 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved.Published 2006 Printed in the United States of America 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 1 2 3 4 5 ISBN: 0-226-28498-0 (cloth) ISBN: 0-226-28499-9 (paper) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Geer, John Gray. In defense of negativity : attack ads in presidential campaigns / John.G.Geer. p.cm.— (Studies in communication,media,and public opinion) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-226-28498-0 (cloth : alk.paper) — ISBN 0-226-28499-9 (pbk.: alk.paper) 1. Campaign management—United States. 2. Advertising, Political—United States. 3.Political campaigns—United States.4.Presidents—United States—Election—History. 5.Negativism.I.Title.II.Series. JK2281.G44 2006 324.7'3'0973–dc22 2005015164 (cid:2)The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,ANSI Z39.48-1992. To my brother, David F. Geer Truth ...has to be made by the rough process of a struggle between combatants fighting under hostile banners. john stuart mill,On Liberty Contents List of Illustrations xi Acknowledgments xiii 1 The Need for Negativity: An Introduction 1 2 Assessing Negativity 20 3 The Information Environment and Negativity 42 4 Evaluating Character Attacks 64 5 Evaluating the Content of Negative and Positive Issue Appeals 85 6 Dragging the Truth into the Gutter? The News Media, Negativity and the 1988 Campaign 111 7 Negativity,Democracy,and the Political System 136 Appendix 163 Notes 167 References 185 Index 195
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