Impact of water treatment on consumer perception, acceptability and product quality

365 Pages·2016·6.02 MB·English

by  Courtney Alissa Crist

Automated Template B: Created by James Nail 2011V2.01
Application of Automated Facial Expression Analysis and Qualitative Analysis to Assess
Consumer Perception and Acceptability of Beverages and Water

Courtney Alissa Crist

Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
In
Food Science and Technology

Susan E. Duncan, Chair
Andrea M. Dietrich
Sean F. O’Keefe
Rick D. Rudd

March 22, 2016
Blacksburg, Virginia

Keywords: automated facial expression analysis, milk, water, qualitative, theory of planned
behavior, emotion, affect, bitter

Copyright © 2016
Courtney A. Crist
Application of Automated Facial Expression Analysis and Qualitative Analysis to
Assess Consumer Perception and Acceptability of Beverages and Water

Courtney Alissa Crist

ABSTRACT (ACADEMIC)

Sensory and consumer sciences aim to understand the influences of product
acceptability and purchase decisions. The food industry measures product acceptability
through hedonic testing but often does not assess implicit or qualitative response.
Incorporation of qualitative research and automated facial expression analysis (AFEA)
may supplement hedonic acceptability testing to provide product insights. The purpose of
this research was to assess the application of AFEA and qualitative analysis to understand
consumer experience and response. In two studies, AFEA was applied to elucidate
consumers’ emotional response to dairy (n=42) and water (n=46) beverages. For dairy,
unflavored milk (x̅=6.6±1.8) and vanilla syrup flavored milk (x̅=5.9±2.2) (p>0.05) were
acceptably rated (1=dislike extremely; 9=like extremely) while salty flavored milk
(x̅=2.3±1.3) was least acceptable (p<0.05). Vanilla syrup flavored milk generated
emotions with surprised intermittently present over time (10 sec) (p<0.025) compared to
unflavored milk. Salty flavored milk created an intense disgust response among other
emotions compared to unflavored milk (p<0.025). Using a bitter solutions model in
water, an inverse relationship existed with acceptability as bitter intensity increased (r =-
s
0.90; p<0.0001). Facial expressions characterized as disgust and happy emotion increased
in duration as bitter intensity increased while neutral remained similar across bitter
intensities compared to the control (p<0.025). In a mixed methods analysis to enumerate
microbial populations, assess water quality, and qualitatively gain consumer insights
regarding water fountains and water filling stations, results inferred that water quality
differences did not exist between water fountains and water filling stations (metals, pH,
chlorine, and microbial) (p>0.05). However, the exterior of water fountains were
microbially (8.8 CFU/cm2) and visually cleaner than filling stations (10.4x103 CFU/cm2)
(p<0.05). Qualitative analysis contradicted quantitative findings as participants preferred
water filling stations because they felt they were cleaner and delivered higher quality
water. Lastly, The Theory of Planned Behavior was able to assist in understanding
undergraduates’ reusable water bottle behavior and revealed 11 categories (attitudes n=6;
subjective norms n=2; perceived behavioral control n=2; intentions n=1). Collectively,
the use of AFEA and qualitative analysis provided additional insight to consumer-product
interaction and acceptability; however, additional research should include improving the
sensitivity of AFEA to consumer product evaluation.
Application of Automated Facial Expression Analysis and Qualitative Analysis to
Assess Consumer Perception and Acceptability of Beverages and Water

Courtney Alissa Crist

ABSTRACT (PUBLIC)

Sensory and consumer sciences aim to understand the influences of consumer
product acceptability and purchase decisions. The food industry measures product
acceptability through testing but it often does not include emotions or verbal response
analysis. Incorporation of qualitative research and automated facial expression analysis
(AFEA) may supplement acceptability testing to provide product insights. The purpose of
this research was to assess the application of AFEA and qualitative analysis to understand
consumer experience and response. In two studies, AFEA was applied to determine
consumers’ emotional response to dairy (n=42) and water (n=46) beverages. For dairy,
unflavored milk (x̅=6.6±1.8) and vanilla syrup flavored milk (x̅=5.9±2.2) (p>0.05) were
positively rated (1=dislike extremely; 9=like extremely) while salty flavored milk
(x̅=2.3±1.3) was negatively rated (p<0.05). Vanilla syrup flavored milk generated
emotions with surprised intermittently present over time (10 sec) (p<0.025) compared to
unflavored milk. Salty flavored milk created an intense disgust response among other
emotions compared to unflavored milk (p<0.025). Using a bitter solutions model in
water, an inverse relationship existed with acceptability as bitter intensity increased (r =-
s
0.90; p<0.0001). Facial expressions characterized as disgust and happy emotion increased
in duration as bitter intensity increased while neutral remained similar across bitter
intensities compared to the control (p<0.025). In an analysis to count microbial
populations, determine water quality, and gain consumer insights regarding water
fountains and water filling stations, results found that water quality differences did not
exist between water fountains and water filling stations (metals, pH, chlorine, and
microbial) (p>0.05). However, the exterior of water fountains were more sanitary (8.8
CFU/cm2) and visually cleaner than filling stations (10.4x103 CFU/cm2) (p<0.05). From
focus groups analyses, participants preferred water filling stations because they felt they
were cleaner and delivered higher quality water. Lastly, The Theory of Planned Behavior
was able to assist in understanding undergraduates’ reusable water bottle behavior and
revealed 11 categories (attitudes n=6; subjective norms n=2; perceived behavioral control
n=2; intentions n=1). Collectively, the use of AFEA and qualitative analysis provided
additional insight to consumer-product interaction and acceptability; however, additional
research should include improving the sensitivity of AFEA to consumer product
evaluation.

v
DEDICATION
I have several grandmothers that were born in 1895. These were all strong, self-
supporting women who emphasized the importance of education. My great-great-
grandmother “Granny” (Laura May Hornsby) was the first woman to attend college at
Nashville's Radnor College in 1911 and used that education to become a nurse in
Alabama. In families where higher education is the norm and not the exception, I hope
my grandmothers would be proud that I was the first woman to attain a PhD and the
second to attain a doctorate, my cousin Susan Zwiebel, MD, being the first. I follow a
long line of family members in education, two of whom were in higher education,
Raymond Catland (Cal Tech) and Felix Massey (University of Tennessee). My
dissertation is dedicated to their hard work and value of education. I feel the support of
my family generations and I would not have this opportunity without them.

vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Susan Duncan for her support, guidance and wisdom
over the last four years. You have provided me many opportunities to explore the realms
of higher education as well as different areas of research. You have helped me push my
boundaries and further diversify my skills and experiences. I am a more well-rounded
researcher and teacher because of you. I would like to thank Dr. Rick Rudd for his
support and guidance. You have always looked out for my best interest. I recognize many
of the opportunities I’ve had at Virginia Tech would not have happened without your
support. I would like to thank Dr. Sean O’Keefe for his willingness to always help and
provide explanations. I appreciate your straightforwardness and honesty. I have enjoyed
working with you and being a student in your classes. I would like to thank Dr. Andrea
Dietrich for her support and guidance with my water research. I can say that I have a new
respect for water. I would like to thank Dr. Dan Gallagher who has been an integral part
of my research progress. I will forever appreciate your assistance with FaceReader output
and your contribution to my statistical knowledge and capabilities.
I wish to thank Dr. Byron Williams, for his continued guidance, wisdom,
expertise and fearless leadership. I would like to thank Dr. Wes Schilling for allowing me
to work in his research lab during my undergraduate career. The experience I gained was
invaluable, and without which, I would not be as successful.
I would like to thank the Duncan Lab Group. Jeri Kostal was my first VT grad
friend and I am so grateful for your friendship. I wish to thank Kristen Leitch, Alexandra
Walsh, Aili Wang (sister), Dr. Laurie Bianchi, Georgianna Mann (gym spouse), Kemia
Amin, Hayley Potts, Daryan Johnson, and Kayla Moberg for their support,
vii
encouragement, camaraderie, and comedic relief. A special thanks to my Virginia Tech
family. I have very much enjoyed the dynamic of the department and talking with
everyone. A fluffy thank you to Lily Yang – no one understands our friendship but we
really are yin/yang. Thank you to Matt Schroeder who helped me with qualitative
research; also, thank you for being a wonderful friend and neighbor. Thank you to Diana
Woodrum and Taylor Duncan for their support, data collection assistance, and Excel
wizardry. Thank you to the Graduate Teaching Scholars and Water INTERface crew.
Thank you to Kim Waterman, Tina Plotka, Joe Boling, and Dr. Hengjian Wang for their
support and assistance as I navigated through the stages of research. Thank you to Joell
Eifert, Dr. Melissa Chase, and Dr. Renee Boyer for their guidance, conversations, and
opportunities in Extension.
I am very grateful for my Mississippi family: Dr. Christine Cord, Stacy Maher,
Lindsey Lee, Krista Eberle, and Brittany Waller. Life would be less interesting without
your friendship and I am grateful we have survived the distance. Thank you to my
Georgia family, while they still don’t always understand what I do, they continue to
support me over the distance. Thank you to my very best friend, Mary Frances Pinson.
I want to thank my parents, Bruce and Susan Crist, for their unyielding support
and guidance. I appreciate their patience while I continue to find my way in the world. I
am very grateful that you are my parents – you’re my heroes and I love you my whole
arm span. Dad – you’re my favorite food scientist. Thank you to my brother Thaddeus
who has so often offered to help and be supportive. I am happy we have had the
opportunity to experience some live music together and I look forward to our events this
year and beyond. Also, thank you to Aunt Debi, Uncle Jim, and Cousin Charlie for all
viii
your support. I have enjoyed being geographically closer to you all and I have enjoyed
being a “Schonberger” every once in a while. A very special thanks to my Uncle Jim
because he helped cross ‘seeing The Rolling Stones’ off my bucket list. Lastly, I would
have not been able (or functional) without the assistance of Lester Schonberger. You are
my person! I most definitely would not be where I am without your love, support and
baked goods. You are the Clairee to my Ouiser.

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT (ACADEMIC) ..............................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT (PUBLIC) ..................................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xvii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... xviii
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................1
References ..........................................................................................................9
II. Literature Review.............................................................................................14
New Product Development and Product Acceptability Testing ......................14
Emotion Methodology .....................................................................................16
Application of Automated Facial Expression Analysis to Foods and
Beverages .............................................................................................18
Flavorings ........................................................................................................21
Theory of Planned Behavior ............................................................................22
Water Regulation .............................................................................................26
Bottled Water Standard of Identity ............................................................26
Tap, Municipal, Or Public Drinking Water Regulation .............................26
American Beverage Industry ...........................................................................28
Bottled Water Consumption Statistics .......................................................28
Tap Water Consumption ............................................................................29
Controversy Surrounding Beverages .........................................................29
Sugar-sweetened Beverages (SSB) ......................................................29
Obesity Crisis and Beverage Contribution ..........................................30
Interventions and Education ................................................................33
Bottled Water and Controversy ...........................................................35
Water Bottle Impact and Responsibility ........................................37
Perception ........................................................................................................38
Water Acceptability .........................................................................................40
Water Consumption, Preference and Risk Perception ...............................40
Water Flavor ..............................................................................................42
Water Value ...............................................................................................47
War over the Water Fountain ...........................................................................48
Water Characteristics from Water Fountains and Water Filling
Stations ...........................................................................................49
x