Impact of parental migration on the psychosocial wellbeing of left-behind children in two Chinese

339 Pages·2017·2.53 MB·English

Impact of parental migration on the psychosocial wellbeing of
left-behind children in two Chinese provinces: individual
experiences, family characteristics, and community contexts

Chenyue Zhao

Institute of Global Health, University College London
Supervisor: Prof. Therese Hesketh

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
February 2017
Declaration

I, Chenyue Zhao, declare that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where
information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been
indicated in the thesis.

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Abstract

Background: In many countries, large numbers of left-behind children (LBC)
grow up experiencing prolonged separation from their migrant worker parents.
In China, the wellbeing of 60 million LBC has become a significant challenge for
families, communities, and the society. This thesis aimed to investigate the impact
mechanisms of parental migration on the psychosocial wellbeing of LBC.

Methods: Children were recruited from migrant-sending rural areas in Zhejiang
and Guizhou provinces. A qualitative study investigated the experiences of
children and perceptions of family members in relation to child psychosocial
wellbeing under the impact of parental migration, as well as the interrelated
factors in the family and social environments and the mechanisms through which
they affect LBC. A quantitative study measured children’s psychosocial strengths
and difficulties and the family and social factors, with a self-administered
questionnaire, and examined the effects of both current and previous parental
migration, and potential causal mechanisms involving different covariates in
multiple linear regression models.

Findings: Qualitative findings showed that lengthy separation poses considerable
difficulties on many children’s psychosocial welling, especially emotional distress,
primarily through disrupted attachment relationships. These effects may not be
easily restored even if migrant parents permanently returned home. The
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psychosocial support (and lack of) from the co-resident family, as well as factors
regarding school performance and community cohesion, also modify or intensify
the child wellbeing outcomes under the impact of parents’ absence. Quantitative
results indicated that both current and previous parental migration was
independently associated with adverse outcomes, especially the emotional and
social dimensions of child psychosocial wellbeing. Relationship between nuclear
family members, care arrangements, and availability of support in family and
social environments seem to be important covariates in the causal mechanisms.
Parental divorce and lack of support may particularly exacerbate children’s
psychosocial difficulties.

Discussion: Parental migration has a long-lasting adverse effect on children’s
psychosocial wellbeing, especially emotional functioning. Positive parent-child
relationship bonds and supportive family and social environments are crucial
determinants of the wellbeing of LBC, rather than socioeconomic status.
Community based programs may be developed to provide additional care and
support.

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Acknowledgements

I would first and foremost like to thank my primary supervisor Prof. Therese
Hesketh who provided essential guidance and support throughout my PhD
project. I am also very grateful to my secondary supervisor Dr Leah Li for the
insightful help with the quantitative analysis chapter.

There are many people in China without whom this research would have been
impossible. Thanks to the project team at Zhejiang University for enabling me to
conduct this study, and to Kaihua Women’s Federation for the local support from
many of its staff members. Thanks also to the study participants in Zhejiang and
Guizhou for sharing their time and often personal experiences. Special thanks to
Kaihua Women’s Federation for the crucial local support from many of its staff
members.

Also, very deep thanks to the friends who have motivated and inspired me
throughout my PhD, in particular Jin Xu and Henry Li, because of whom I never
really felt alone on this bittersweet journey.

Finally, thanks to my parents and my girlfriend, who supported me
unconditionally along the way. And thanks to my grandfather, who I was unable
to spend more time with during his last years, who taught me so much in
becoming a person I am, and would have been so proud of me.
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13
1.1 Scale of migration and LBC populations globally ..................................................... 13
1.2 Contexts of migration and parent-child separation ................................................ 16
1.3 Care environment of left-behind children ................................................................... 18
1.4 Policies to safeguard the wellbeing of LBC ................................................................. 21
1.5 Programs to improve the wellbeing of LBC ................................................................ 24
1.6 Research question and study aims ................................................................................. 26
1.7 Thesis structure ...................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 2 Review of Theoretical Perspectives ........................................................................... 28
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 28
2.1 Migration theories ................................................................................................................. 28
2.1.1 The push-pull models ................................................................................................ 28
2.1.2 Neoclassical economics theory .............................................................................. 30
2.1.3 Household economics theory ................................................................................. 31
2.1.4 Segmented labor-market and world systems theory .................................... 32
2.2 Theories in family studies .................................................................................................. 33
2.2.1 Family Stress Management .................................................................................... 33
2.2.2 Family Context ............................................................................................................ 35
2.2.3 Socio-ecological approach and family systems theory ................................ 37
2.3 Attachment Theory ................................................................................................................ 39
2.3.1 The earliest attachment .......................................................................................... 39
2.3.2 Development and disruption of attachment relationship .......................... 41
2.3.3 Migratory separation and attachment .............................................................. 42
2.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 3 Review of Empirical Literature .................................................................................... 45
3.1 Introduction and scope of the review ........................................................................... 45
3.1 Methods ...................................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 Quantitative studies .............................................................................................................. 62
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3.2.1 Characteristics of the study samples .................................................................. 63
3.2.2 Comparison between English-language and Chinese-language studies67
3.2.3 Happiness and quality of life measures ............................................................. 68
3.2.4 Mental health status ................................................................................................. 70
3.2.5 Resilience and positive youth development ...................................................... 72
3.2.6 Psychosocial strengths and difficulties .............................................................. 73
3.2.7 Emotional symptoms ................................................................................................ 77
3.2.8 Behavioral issues ........................................................................................................ 82
3.2.9 Self-concept and self-esteem .................................................................................. 84
3.2.10 Factors associated with wellbeing in left-behind children ...................... 86
3.3 Qualitative studies .............................................................................................................. 110
3.3.1 Migration decision .................................................................................................. 110
3.3.2 Gender norms and socio-cultural context ...................................................... 113
3.3.3 Emotional and behavioral impact .................................................................... 114
3.3.4 Communication ........................................................................................................ 117
3.3.5 Education ................................................................................................................... 120
3.3.6 Care environment in the left-behind families ............................................... 123
3.4 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 125
3.4.1 Overview and gaps in the literature ................................................................ 125
3.4.2 Contribution of the review to the current qualitative study ................... 127
3.4.3 Contribution of the review to the current quantitative study ................ 128
3.4.4 Putting empirical studies into contexts .......................................................... 130
Chapter 4 Study contexts .................................................................................................................. 131
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 131
4.2 Study areas and populations .......................................................................................... 131
4.2.1 Socioeconomic development and migration in Zhejiang Province ...... 133
4.2.3 Introduction to Kaihua, the main project site .............................................. 135
4.2.2 Socioeconomic development and migration in Guizhou Province ....... 137
4.3 Policy and administration contexts ............................................................................. 138
4.3.1 Family planning policy in China ........................................................................ 139
4.3.2 Rural government administration system ..................................................... 140
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4.3.3 Women’s Federation (WF) system .................................................................... 142
4.3.4 Roles of government agencies on child protection and intervention
programs ............................................................................................................................... 143
4.4 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 144
Chapter 5 Experiences of children, and relationships, care and support in the
families living apart ............................................................................................................................. 145
5.1 Introduction and use of extant literature ................................................................. 145
5.2 Methods ................................................................................................................................... 147
5.2.1 Study area .................................................................................................................. 148
5.2.2 Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 149
5.2.3 Interview preparations ......................................................................................... 152
5.2.3 Interview procedure ............................................................................................... 154
5.2.4 Roles of the local collaborator ........................................................................... 156
5.2.5 Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 158
5.3 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 161
5.3.1 Overview of migrant families ............................................................................. 161
5.3.2 Household socioeconomic rationales of migration .................................... 162
5.3.3 Child wellbeing in absence of migrant parents ........................................... 168
5.3.4 Care arrangements and psychosocial support in the left-behind
family ...................................................................................................................................... 179
5.3.5 Care and disciplining concerns and the return of migrant mother ..... 185
5.3.6 Challenges in education attainment and community environment .... 192
5.3.7 Psychosocial support from the community environment ........................ 197
5.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 201
5.4.1 Summary of key findings ...................................................................................... 201
5.4.2 Comparison of study contexts with extant international literature .... 204
5.4.3 Attachment relationship and emotional distress ........................................ 206
5.4.4 Availability of support from family and socio-ecological
environments ....................................................................................................................... 211
5.4.5 The processes and effects of return migration ............................................. 214
5.4.6 Limitations: study sample, age, and gender ................................................. 217
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5.4.7 Study implications and connections with the quantitative study ........ 218
Chapter 6 Impact of parental migration on children’s psychosocial wellbeing
measures: a quantitative survey .................................................................................................... 222
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 222
6.2 Methods ................................................................................................................................... 223
6.2.1 Study populations ................................................................................................... 223
6.2.2 Data collection ......................................................................................................... 224
6.2.3 Measures ..................................................................................................................... 225
6.2.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................................. 236
6.3 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 237
6.3.1 Sample descriptive statistics ............................................................................... 237
6.3.2 Parental migration status and psychosocial difficulties .......................... 240
6.3.3 Effects of household characteristics ................................................................. 243
6.3.4 Effects of social support and school performance ...................................... 246
6.3.5 Different dimensions of psychosocial wellbeing .......................................... 246
6.3.6 Results in currently left-behind children ........................................................ 248
6.2.7 Interaction effects ................................................................................................... 250
6.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 251
6.4.1 Summary of key findings and contributions to the literature ............... 251
6.4.2 Independent effects of parental migration on psychosocial difficulties254
6.4.3 Family care and social support .......................................................................... 258
6.4.4 Family wealth status and child wellbeing ..................................................... 265
6.4.5 Household economics of labor migration ...................................................... 268
6.4.6 School performance ............................................................................................... 270
6.4.7 Age and gender disparities .................................................................................. 271
6.5 Strengths and limitations ................................................................................................ 274
Chapter 7 Discussion and conclusion .......................................................................................... 276
7.1 Overall summary of study results ................................................................................ 276
7.2 Key findings and contributions ..................................................................................... 277
7.2.1 The relationship-emotion mechanisms showing the impact of
migration .............................................................................................................................. 277
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7.2.2 Non-emotional aspects of child wellbeing ..................................................... 281
7.2.3 A time dimension of the impact from migration ......................................... 283
7.2.4 Care arrangements and psychosocial support ............................................. 286
7.2.5 Household economic resources .......................................................................... 290
7.2.6 Socioeconomic and community contexts ....................................................... 292
7.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 298
7.3.1 Systems safeguarding the wellbeing of LBC .................................................. 298
7.3.2 Stable and protective family environment .................................................... 299
7.3.3 Implications for policy and interventions ...................................................... 300
7.3.4 Solutions to keep families together .................................................................. 302
References ............................................................................................................................................... 304
Annex: Quantitative survey questionnaire ................................................................................ 324

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