Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces

395 Pages·2009·2.88 MB·English

by  Steven R. Ward

For Martha Ann,
my one and only

Contents
List of Figures ix
Preface and Acknowledgments xi
Introduction: The Iranian Phoenix 1
1 Heritage of Greatness, Legacy of Loss 11
2 Powerful Predecessors: The Safavids and Nader Shah 41
3 Laughingstock: The Qajar Military 61
4 Nationalism Unleashed: From Revolution to the Great War 91
5 Two Paths: The Birth of the Modern Iranian Armed Forces 125
6 Sidelined: The World at War in Iran 151
7 Cold War Pillar: The Rise of the Imperial Armed Forces 181
8 Old Guard, New Guard: Iran’s Armed Forces in the 211
Islamic Revolution
9 Horrible Sacrifi ce: The Iran- Iraq War 242
10 Despise Not Your Enemy: Iran’s Armed Forces in the 299
Twenty-fi rst Century
Notes 327
Bibliography 349
Index 363

Figures
I.1 Nest of the Phoenix xiv
1.1 The Achaemenian Empire 10
1.2 Ancient Batt lefi elds 18
1.3 The Parthian and Sassanian Empires 25
2.1 The Persian World from the Arab Conquests 40
to Nader Shah
4.1 Qajar Iran 90
6.1 The 1941 British and Soviet Invasions of Iran 153
9.1 The September 1980 Iraqi Invasion and Iranian 250
Counteroff ensives, 1980–1982
9.2 Iranian Off ensives, 1983–1987 262
9.3 The Naval War in the Persian Gulf 280
9.4 Iran’s 1988 Defeats 290

Preface and
Acknowledgments
THIS HISTORY OF IRAN’S ARMED FORCES att empts to illustrate some impor-
tant truths that can be helpful in understanding the Iranian military’s potential
role in the world in the coming century. Iran has not done well during the past
two centuries in the box- score shorthand of wars that include the number of
batt les lost, men killed and wounded, and equipment destroyed. Nonetheless,
this book will show that Iranian men- at- arms, despite a modern history domi-
nated by poor leadership, maltreatment, and a poverty of means, have demon-
strated qualities that bear careful consideration by potential opponents. It would
be a serious mistake to overlook the bravery and perseverance of Iranian soldiers
or the costs they have imposed on their enemies by hard fi ghting, clever tactics,
and the exploitation of Iran’s imposing geography. While fi nal victory has of-
ten eluded them, Iran’s armed forces have enjoyed surprising tactical successes
at home and abroad against their foes. This history also tries to provide back-
ground on the nationalist, tribal, and religious heritages that motivate Iranian
military personnel at all ranks and that are necessary for comprehending Iran’s
armed forces today and in the future.
I have tried to make this narrative as easy to read as possible by being consis-
tent in spelling and in the transliteration of Persian (or Farsi), Arabic, and other
foreign language terms. I have stayed with the more common and recognizable
versions of names. For example, I use “Cyrus” rather than “Kurash” for the name
of the founder of the fi rst Persian Empire and use “Muhammad” rather than
“Muhammed,” “Mohammad,” or other spellings of this name. Elsewhere, I have
followed the current practices of major U.S. news media to simplify spelling,
using, for example, “Shia” rather than “Shi’i” or “Shiite” for the branch of Islam
predominant in Iran and “Koran” for “Qur’an.” One major exception in consis-
tency is that the terms “Persia” and “Persian” are used in their historical context
to refer to a geopolitical entity and its multiethnic people before “Iran” and “Ira-
nian” take their proper place.
In conducting my research for this book I am indebted to many works on
pre-I slamic Persia and on Iran between the seventh and twentieth centuries,
and these are presented in the bibliography. Beyond these published works, I
xii Preface and Acknowledgments
was able to mine very useful information about Iran’s armed forces during the
U.S. military advisory eff ort between 1942 and 1979 from the National Archives
at College Park, Maryland, and the Army Military History Institute in Carlisle,
Pennsylvania. In addition, I was fortunate to fi nd several books and three doc-
toral dissertations in English that drew on Iranian archives and publications and
helped provide a greater Iranian perspective on the development of the modern
Iranian military. I also benefi ted from having access to translated Iranian media
produced by the U.S. government’s Open Source Center, previously known as
the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. The Middle East Journal graciously
allowed me to draw from my article “The Continuing Evolution of Iran’s Mili-
tary Doctrine” for portions of chapter 10.
As I have tried to highlight important aspects of Iran’s military history, I have
had to refrain from more detailed analysis of the Iranian armed forces today. As a
U.S. government intelligence analyst actively working Middle Eastern subjects,
I have a responsibility to maintain the confi dence of consumers of intelligence
in the objectivity and policy neutrality of my agency’s work product. So, with
regard to more recent developments, I have tried to present facts and assess-
ments as they are generally presented by nongovernment regional experts and
leave it to the readers to draw their own conclusions about some issues. Read-
ers should understand that all statements of fact, opinion, or analysis expressed
are those of the author and do not refl ect the offi cial positions or views of the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or any other U.S. government agency. Noth-
ing in the contents should be construed as asserting or implying U.S. govern-
ment authentication of information or CIA endorsement of the author’s views.
Also, this material has been reviewed by the CIA to prevent the disclosure of
classifi ed information. I want to thank the CIA Publication Review Board and
all those agency offi cers involved for their time and eff ort in helping me move
my manuscript through the clearance process for publication. In addition, I am
very grateful to David Gordon, the former Vice- Chairman of the National Intel-
ligence Council; Alan Pino, the National Intelligence Offi cer for the Near East;
and Timothy Buch, the former director of the CIA’s Offi ce of Near Eastern and
South Asian Analysis. All three were very supportive in allowing me to take an
unpaid leave of absence to write this book.
I have oft en read acknowledgments in books but did not know until writing
my own how heartfelt they were. This book would not have been possible with-
out the encouragement, advice, and assistance of a number of good friends and
colleagues. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to Daniel Byman, the director of the
Center for Peace and National Security Studies at Georgetown University, who
helped me think through many of the issues in the book and provided numerous
suggestions for improving the substance and presentation. Dan’s cheerful and
generous support throughout the process was indispensable. Kenneth Pollack,
Preface and Acknowledgments xiii
the director of research at the Saban Center for Middle East Policy of the Brook-
ings Institution, provided invaluable assistance in virtually every aspect of the
eff ort. From conception through research, outlining, and draft ing, I benefi ted
greatly from Ken’s ideas, his knowledge of military history, and his understand-
ing of Iran. I also want to thank Richard Mobley, a fi rst-c lass military analyst
who reviewed portions of the draft and helped ensure that the chapters on Iran’s
postrevolution history are as accurate as possible. Job Ditt berner, an associate
from the National Intelligence Council, was more than generous with his time
in reviewing my manuscript and providing sage and practical advice on improv-
ing its style, grammar, and clarity. Michael Podolny, an outstanding cartogra-
pher, not only created this volume’s maps but also patiently advised me on the
best means to present this information. And, last but not least, Don Jacobs, my
editor at Georgetown University Press, and his associates were all tremendously
helpful in guiding me through the publishing process. Of course, even with the
assistance of such great people, a few mistakes may have slipped into the text,
and I am solely responsible for such errors.
Finally, I could not have writt en this book without the loving support of my
wonderful wife, Martha Ann. She made it possible for me to devote all the time
that I needed to the book and was very tolerant of my long disappearances into
the basement study with my constant writing companion, our beloved Welsh
Terrier, Bailey.