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IMAGE ACQUISITION JOIN US ON THE INTERNET VIA WWW, GOPHER, FTP OR EMAIL: WWW: http://www.thomson.com GOPHER: gopher.thomson.com A service of IC!JP FTP: ftp.thomson.com EMAIL: [email protected] IMAGE ACQUISITION W. MICHAEL BURKE META VISION ATLANTA Published by Chapman & Hall,2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt SHN, UK Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Gennany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India First edition 1996 © 1996 Micheal W. Burke Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996 ISBN-13:978-94-01O-6S20-7 e-ISBN-13:978-94-009-0069-1 DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-0069-1 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the tenns of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the tenns of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the tenns stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the infonnation contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95-68341 ~ Printed on pennanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 and ANSIINISO Z39.48-1984 (pennanence of Paper). To the memory of my mother, Grace Adriana Christensen Burke VOLUME TABLE OF CONTENTS About the Author ••••.••.•.•.•.••••.•••••.••.•.•.•• xii 1.3.3.3 Intensity.......................... 51 Series Preface •..••.•.•......•...•••.•.•.•.•.•.•.. xiii 1.3.3.4 Sterance.......................... 53 Goals of the book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xv 1.3.3.5 Flux measurement. ................. 54 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xviii 1.4 Generation of light. • • • . • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • • • . • . . • .• 61 Other MV books ............................... xviii 1.4.1 Incandescence............................ 62 The role of theory ............................... xix 1.4.2 Luminescence............................ 63 Theory ...................................... xix 1.4.2.1 Phosphorescence / fluorescence . . . . . .. 63 Practice ..................................... xix 1.4.2.2 Electroluminescence................ 64 A rapprochement .............................. xx 1.4.2.3 Cathodoluminescence............... 64 A note on mathematics ........................ xxi 1.4.3 Electric arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 Who this book is for ............................. xxi 1.5 Lighting models ••••.••••••.•.••••.•••.••.•••.• 65 What the reader needs to know .................... xxiii 1.5.1 Scene radiometry ......................... 76 Organization and overview ....................... xxiii 1.5.1.1 Generic surface and extended source ... 80 Colophon ..................................... xxiv 1.5.1.2 Lambertian surface / extended source ... 82 Summary ..................................... xxiv 1.5.1.3 Lambertian surface / directed source ... 84 Volume Preface • . • . • • • • • • • . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. xxvi 1.5.1.4 Diffuse source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84 Acknowledgements ...•..•....................... xxvii 1.5.1.5 Specular surfaces ................... 85 Symbol Glossary. • . . • . • • . • . • . • . . • . • . . . • . • . • . • . • • .• xxx 1.5.1.6 Albedo ........................... 86 1.5.1.7 Empirical measurement ofRDF ....... 87 1.5.2 Source geometry .......................... 88 1.5.2.1 Point-sources ...................... 88 1 Lighting I: Principles . . . . . . . . . . • . . .. 1 1.5.2.2 Finite-area patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89 1.5.2.3 Circular disk ...................... 90 1.1 Introduction.................... • • . • . • • . • . • • • •. 1 1.5.2.4 Spherical source .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92 1.2 Nature of light .•••••••••.•.•.•.•.•.•••.•.•.••••. 4 1.5.2.5 Linear source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 1.2.1 Interaction with matter ..................... 16 1.5.2.6 Cylinder / tube ..................... 98 1.2.2 Model of the atom ........................ 19 1.5.2.7 Rectangular strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 1.2.3 Interference effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22 1.5.2.8 Tube sources ..................... 101 1.2.4 Diffraction.............................. 23 1.5.2.9 Square diffuser ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 1.2.5 Scattering............................... 26 1.5.3 Non-standard sources ..................... 103 1.3 Measurement oflight. . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . • . • . • • • • .• 26 1.5.3.1 Elliptical source ................... 105 1.3.1 Radiometry.............................. 28 1.5.3.2 Transparent / arc sources. . . . . . . . . . .. 106 1.3.1.1 Radiant flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 1.6 Lighting geometry I techniques. • . • . • • • • . • . . . • • •• 107 1.3.1.2 Radiant intensity ................... 29 1.6.1 Frontlighting............................ 109 Point-source intensity. ............... 33 1.6.1.1 Directional. ...................... 109 1.3.1.3 Radiant exitance / emittance. . . . . . . . .. 34 Darkfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111 1.3.1.4 Radiant incidence /irradiance. . . . . . . .. 34 Brightfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 1.3.1.5 Radiance / sterance ................. 38 1.6.1.2 Diffuse lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 1.3.2 Photometry .............................. 41 1.6.1.3 Integrating sphere enclosures ........ 116 1.3.2.1 Luminous flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43 1.6.2 Backlighting............................ 117 1.3.2.2 Luminous intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 1.6.2.1 Directional ....................... 119 1.3.2.3 Illuminance....................... 46 Collimated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119 1.3.2.4 Luminous exitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 Condensed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120 1.3.2.5 Luminance / sterance ....•.•......... 48 1.6.2.2 Diffuse.......................... 121 1.3.3 Measurement procedures ................... 51 1.6.3 Structured lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123 1.3.3.1 Irradiance / illuminance. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 1.3.3.2 Exitance .......................... 51 1.7 Summary .•.•.•.•.•.•.•..•.••••••.•.•.••••••• 124 viii Table of Contents 2 Lighting ll: Sources • • • • • • • • • • • • .• 127 2.6.6 LEDs .................................. 256 2.6.6.1 Pulsed operation .... .. .. .. .. .. .... 259 2.1 Introduction................................. 127 2.6.7 Laser safety •.............••....•.••..... 261 2.2 Ambient light ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ... 130 2.7 Electroluminescent panels. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 264 2.2.1 Daylighting ...............•.•...•...•••• 131 2.8 Specialized spectral sources •••••••••••••••••••• 266 2.2.1.1 Solar irradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 2.8.1 Ultraviolet sources ••••••••••••••••••••••• 266 2.2.1.2 Skylighting ...................... 136 2.8.2 Infrared ................................ 272 2.2.2 Nightlighting ........................... 138 2.8.3 X-ray sources ........•.•.••.......•..... 275 2.3 Incandescent lamps ................... • • • • • • •• 139 2.8.4 Ultrasonics............................. 279 2.3.1 Filaments ..••••.•.•...•.•.............. 140 2.9 Summary •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 281 2.3.2 In-rush current .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 142 2.3.3 Flicker................................. 143 2.3.4 Fill-gases............................... 144 3 Optics I: Imaging ••••••••••••••• 284 2.3.5 The bulb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145 2.3.6 Service life .....................••••.... 146 3.1 Introduction ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 284 2.3.7 Spectral content (color) .•.••.............. 149 3.2 Optical systems ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 284 2.3.8 Efficacy ................................ 149 3.2.1 Transmission ......•.•••.....••..•....•.. 286 2.4 Quartz-halogen lamps • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 151 3.2.2 Refraction.............................. 287 2.5 Arc and gas discharge. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 155 3.2.3 Reflection.............................. 294 2.5.1 Short-arc lamps .•.•.•...•.•.............• 156 3.2.3.1 Fresnel's equations - dielectrics. . . . .. 295 2.5.2 Gas-discharge lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158 3.2.3.2 Fresnel's equations - metals. . . • • . . .. 298 TIR............................. 2.5.2.1 Low-pressure discharges ••.•••...... 160 3.2.3.3 299 2.5.2.2 Filament structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165 3.2.3.4 Laser speckle.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 300 2.5.2.3 Fill-gases........................ 166 3.3 Lenses ...................................... 300 2.5.2.4 Arc starting. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .. 168 3.3.1 Pinhole model. • . . . . . . . . . • • • . . • • • . . . . . . •. 301 2.5.3 Fluorescent lamps ................••••.... 169 3.3.2 Paraxial / Gaussian optics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 305 2.5.3.1 Temperature effects ................ 172 3.3.3 Field-of-view........................... 306 2.5.3.2 Phosphors and colors. . . . . . . . . . . • • •. 174 3.3.4 Focal length • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . .. 307 2.5.3.3 Service life ....••...•...•.••••.... 180 3.3.4.1 Magnification .................... 311 2.5.3.4 Lamp ignition ................ .... 182 3.3.4.2 Thicklens ....................... 317 2.5.3.5 Bulb types • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 183 3.3.4.3 Compound lenses .••••.•.••......• 319 2.5.4 HID lamps •••.....•.•..........•.•••... 185 Two positive lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 323 2.5.4.1 High-pressure discharges ..........• 187 Positive + negative lenses . . . • . . . . . .. 323 2.5.4.2 High-pressure mercury lamps ........ 191 Multiple lens systems .. .. .. .. .. .... 324 2.5.4.3 Blended light.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 195 3.3.5 Lens aperture /lens speed ....••......•••.. 326 2.5.4.4 Metal halide lamps ...... .. .. .. .... 196 3.3.5.1 Aperture stops .................... 327 2.5.4.5 Low-pressure sodium •. . . • . . . . . . • .. 201 3.3.5.2 Field stops . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .... 328 2.5.4.6 High-pressure sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . .• 205 3.3.5.3 Relative aperture .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 329 2.5.5 Ballasting gear . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 209 Effective aperture .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 334 2.5.5.1 HID ballasting .................... 220 Transmission aperture. . . . . . . . . . • • .. 335 2.5.5.2 Flicker ............•............. 224 Iris ..••..........•....•.•.....•• 335 2.5.5.3 EMI ............................ 225 3.3.5.4 Pupils ........................... 336 2.5.5.4 HID usage. • • • . • . • . . . . . • . . . . • • • .• 226 Entrance pupil. . . • • • • • • • • • • . . . . • •• 337 2.5.5.5 Arc lamp safety •••••.•..•••.•••••• 228 Exit pupil. • . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . •• 338 2.5.6 Strobes................................ 229 Pupil factor • • • • . . . . • • . . . • • • . • • • .• 338 2.5.6.1 Flash intensity .................... 235 3.3.5.5 Vignetting .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... 340 2.5.6.2 Flash duration .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 236 Optical vignetting .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 340 2.5.6.3 Guide number .................... 237 Mechanical vignetting •.....•......• 342 2.5.6.4 Flash rate • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . .. 238 3.3.5.6 Numerical aperture .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 345 2.5.6.5 Strobe synching.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 239 3.3.6 Depth-of-view ••......•••••..•.••......•• 348 2.6 Lasers ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 239 3.3.6.1 Depth-of-focus ................... 352 2.6.1 Beam modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 243 3.3.7 Aberrations ..........•.••••...•••..•.... 353 2.6.2 Coherence .............................. 245 3.3.7.1 Spherical aberrations .•.....•....... 355 2.6.3 Laser optics •.•..••.•.....•.•••..•.•.•.•. 246 3.3.7.2 Coma •.•••....••••••.•.•••.••..• 358 2.6.4 Gas lasers . • . • • . • • • • • • • • . • . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 247 3.3.7.3 Astigmatism ..................... 359 2.6.5 Solid lasers .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 248 3.3.7.4 Field curvature .................... 360 2.6.5.1 Semiconductor diode lasers ..••.••••• 248 3.3.7.5 Distortion ...••••.••.•.•••••••.... 361 2.6.5.2 Thnable lasers .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 256 3.3.7.6 Chromatic aberration ...•.•....••••• 363 Table of Contents ix 3.3.7.7 Summary ........................ 365 4.3 Lighting mirrors ••••••.••.•.......••••.••••••. 426 3.3.8 Lens types .............................. 367 4.3.1 Spherical reflectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426 3.3.8.1 Positive singlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 367 4.3.2 Paraboloidal reflectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 427 Plano-convex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 368 4.3.3 Ellipsoidal reflectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 428 Double-convex .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 368 4.3.4 IR mirrors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 430 Positive meniscus .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369 4.4 Lens filters .......•.•.•.•.•.••••.•..•••.•••••• 431 Positive achromats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370 4.4.1 Spectrally selective filters ................. 433 3.3.8.2 Negative singlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 371 4.4.1.1 Colored filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 433 3.3.8.3 Doublets......................... 372 4.4.1.2 Interference filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 436 3.3.8.4 Triplets, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 373 Band-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 436 3.3.8.5 Cylindrical lens ................... 373 Edge filters ...................... 439 3.3.8.6 GRIN lenses ..................... 377 4.4.2 Neutral-density filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440 Lens arrays ...................... 378 4.4.3 Protective filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441 3.3.8.7 Fresnel zone plates ................ 379 3.3.8.8 Specialty lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 380 4.5 Diffusers.... • • • . • . • . • . • . • . • . • • . . • • • • • . • . • . •• 443 Zoom lenses ...................... 380 4.5.1 Retroreflective materials .................. 445 Large-fonnat lenses ................ 380 4.6 Polarized light. . • • • • . • . • . • • • . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • . .• 447 Projection lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381 4.6.1 Polarizers.............................. 449 3.3.9 Holographic optics ....................... 382 4.6.1.1 Absorption / dichroism ............. 452 3.3.10 Anti-reflection coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 382 4.6.1.2 Refraction / birefringence. . . . . . . . . .. 453 3.3.10. 1F ilm thickness inspection ........... 386 Polarizing prisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 455 4.6.1.3 Selective scattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 458 3.4 Imaging mirrors .••.•.•.•.........•.•.••••.•.• 387 4.6.1.4 Reflective polarization .. . . . . . . . . . .. 460 3.4.1 Plane mirrors ........................... 390 Polarizing beamsplitters . . . . . . . . . . .. 462 3.4.2 Concave spherical mirrors ................. 391 4.6.1.5 Circular polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 463 3.4.3 Convex spherical mirrors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 392 4.6.1.6 Optical activity .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. ... 465 3.4.4 Mirror coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 393 Retardation plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 3.4.4.1 Aluminum ....................... 394 4.6.1.7 Electro-optic polarization ........... 467 3.4.4.2 Silver and gold ................... 394 Electro-optic shutters. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 468 3.4.4.3 Thin-film ........................ 395 4.6.2 Phase-contrast imaging .................... 471 3.4.5 Mirror-lens systems ...................... 396 4.7 Lens physical characteristics• •••.•.••...•••••••• 471 3.5 Prisms ...................................... 398 4.7.1 Lens fonnats ............................ 472 3.5.1 Optical flats ............................ 399 4.7.2 Lens mounts ............................ 473 3.5.2 Wedge prisms ........................... 400 4.7.2.1 C-mount ......................... 475 3.5.3 Dispersion / equilateral prisms .............. 400 4.7.2.2 Pentax U-mount ................... 476 3.5.4 Isoceles-Littrow prisms ................... 402 4.7.2.3 Nikon F-mount ................... 476 3.5.5 Right-angle prisms ....................... 403 4.7.2.4 Leica L-mount. ................... 477 3.5.6 Porro prisms ............................ 404 4.7.3 Optical materials ......................... 477 3.5.7 Rhomboid prisms ........................ 405 4.7.3.1 Optical glasses .................... 477 3.5.8 Trihedral prisms ......................... 405 4.7.3.2 Special glasses .................... 480 3.5.9 Dove prisms ............................ 405 4.7.3.3 Fused silica ...................... 480 3.5.10 Amici (roof) prisms ...................... 406 4.7.3.4 Sapphire ......................... 481 3.5.11 Penta prisms ............................ 407 4.7.3.5 Plastic .......................... 482 3.5.12 Prism aberrations ........................ 407 4.7.3.6 Lens costs ....................... 483 3.5.13 Beamsplitters ........................... 408 4.7.3.7 Lens hoods ....................... 484 3.6 Closing remarks ••••.••.•.•.•.•.••••••••.•.••. 412 4.8 Shutters I exposure timing.. .. • . • . • • . • . • .. .. .... 484 4.9 Autofocusing. • • . • • . . • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • •• 487 4.9.1 Ranging ................................ 488 4 Optics II: Systems ••.•........•••• 414 4.9.2 Astigmatic focusing ...................... 489 4.9.3 Knife-edge focusing ...................... 489 4.1 Introduction •••••••.•••••••••.•.•.•••.••••••• 414 4.9.4 Biprism focusing ........................ 490 4.2 Optics for lighting ............................ 414 4.9.5 Image contrast ........................•. 491 4.2.1 Beam expanders ......................... 417 4.9.6 Phase-detection focusing .................. 494 4.2.2 Condensers ............................. 418 4.9.7 Electronic-signal focusing ................. 494 4.2.3 Collimators ............................. 421 4.9.8 Others ......................•....•.•... 495 4.2.4 Fresnellenses........................... 422 4.10 Specialized optics. • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • •• 495 4.2.5 Aspheric lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 424 4.10.1 Close-up imaging ........................ 495 4.2.6 Lighting projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425 4.10.1.1 Macro lenses ................... 496 x Table of Contents 4.10.1.2 Extension tubes ......•.......... 498 5.3.1.1 Orthicon tubes ..•.•.•............. 574 Focal length conversion . . . . . . . . .. 500 5.3.1.2 Vidicon ......................... 575 4.10.1.3 Close-up lenses ..•........•.•... 500 5.3.1.3 Others .............•...•........ 576 Afocal converters . . • • • . . . . . . . . •. 501 5.3.2 CCD transfer ......•...••..........••.... 579 Telescopic converters . . . . . . . • • . .. 501 5.3.2.1 The charge-transfer process ••••••••• 580 Wide-angle converters ........... 502 5.3.2.2 Charge-transfer efficiency. . . . . . • • . .. 586 4.10.1.4 Teleconverters. • . . . . . • . . • . . . . . .. 502 5.3.3 Serially-switched photodiode devices ..•..•. 589 4.10.1.5 Edge location paradigms ..•....... 503 5.3.4 Charge-coupled photodiode devices ..•••.•.. 592 4.10.1.6 Pinhole optics .................. 505 5.3.5 cm readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 599 4.10.1.7 Confocal imaging ..............• 507 5.3.6 Storage I architectures ...........•....•... 604 4.10.1.8 Telecentric optics ....•......•... 508 5.3.6.1 Linescan sensors .............•.... 605 4.10.1.9 Telephoto lenses •.••••..••...... 510 5.3.6.2 Matrix-array sensors •.•......••.••. 613 4.10.1.10 Relay optics .................... 511 Full frame .•••.••••.••••••••• : ••• 614 4.10.1.11 Segmented imaging. . . . . • . . . . • • .. 511 Frame transfer .................... 615 4.10.1.12 Schlieren imaging .....•...•..•.. 512 Interline transfer . . . . . . • . . . • • . • . . .. 617 4.10.2 Perspective •....••....•......•..•....... 513 Frame-interline hybrids .•...•..••... 618 4.10.2.1 Orthographic perspective •.•...... 515 5.3.6.3 IDI sensors ...........•..•..••... 619 Panoramic perspective ........•.. 515 5.3.7 Charge conversion . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . .. 626 Fisheye imaging .........•...... 516 5.3.8 Solid-state cameras .•...•.........••...... 628 4.10.2.2 Image-shape control .......••.... 517 5.4 Performance characteristics. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 629 4.U Beyond the visual spectrum •••••••••••••••••••• 520 5.4.1 Sensitivity I responsivity ..••.••......•.••• 630 4.11.1 IRoptics .•............................. 520 5.4.1.1 Spectral response .....•.......•..•. 633 4.11.2 UV optics .............................. 522 5.4.1.2 Linearity ............•......•.... 636 4.12 Fiber-optics •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 523 5.4.1.3 Uniformity I PRNU .......•...•...• 636 5.4.2 Detectivity and noise ...•......•..•....... 641 4.12.1 Fibertypes •............................ 526 5.4.2.1 Noiseparameters .•...•..•...•.•.•. 643 4.12.2 Extrinsic fiber losses .....•.....•.••....... 528 5.4.2.2 Detectivity measurement. . . . . . . . . . .. 645 4.12.2.1 Launching losses .•.............• 528 5.4.2.3 Noise sources. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. 648 Numerical aperture . . . . . . . . . • • . •. 528 Quantum I shot noise. . • . • • . . . • . . . •. 649 Output losses ................... 532 Recombination noise. . . • . . • . . . • . . .. 651 Face (Fresnel) losses. . . . . . . • • . . •• 533 Dark current. . . • . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . •. 652 4.12.2.2 Connector losses ......•••...••.. 533 Johnson I thermoresistive noise . . . . .. 656 4.12.2.3 Defect losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . .. 534 Flicker noise . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . • • .. 657 4.12.3 Intrinsic fiber losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 534 Charge-transfer inefficiency . • . . . . . .. 657 4.12.3.1 Absorption losses ..••........... 535 Crosstalk I smear I streaking. . . . . . . .. 659 4.12.3.2 Scattering losses ..............•. 536 Readout I clock noise •. . . . . . . . • . . •. 662 4.12.4 Optical efficiency considerations .•••..••.•.. 536 kTC I reset noise .• • . • . . . • . . . . . • • •. 662 4.13 Summary.................................... 537 Amplifier noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .. 664 External noise sources. . . • . . • . . • . . .. 666 5.4.2.4 Sensor chip cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 666 5 Sensors I: Basics................. 539 Convection I radiation. • . . • . • • . • • • .. 667 5.1 Introduction.. .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 539 Dewars .......•.•.•.•..•...•..•.• 667 Joule-Thompson cryostat .•.••..•..• 667 5.2 Pbotodetectors.. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 542 Stirling cycle refrigerator • • • • . • • • . .• 667 5.2.1 Photoemissive sensors .............•....•. 543 Thermoelectric (Peltier) cooling. . . • .• 667 5.2.2 Photovoltaic cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . . . . . .. 543 5.4.3 Dynamic range .............•...........• 669 5.2.3 Photoconductors ...............•...••.... 544 5.4.3.1 Optical range •••........•......... 670 5.2.4 Junction photodetectors • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .. 546 5.4.3.2 Electrical range •..••........•..••. 671 5.2.4.1 Semiconductors .....•••........... 547 5.4.3.3 Linearity range ....•.............. 672 5.2.4.2 Quantum efficiency. . • . • . . . . . . . . . .. 553 5.4.3.4 Blooming I streaking. • . • • • . • . . • . . .. 673 5.2.4.3 P-Njunctions .••...•.......•.•.... 555 5.4.3.5 Sensitivity window . . • . . . . . . . • • . . .• 674 5.2.4.4 Photovoltaic mode. . . . . . • . • . • • • • . •• 559 5.4.4 Temporal characteristics. . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . .. 676 5.2.4.5 Photoconductive mode ......••••... 561 55 Summary •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 679 5.2.4.6 Photointegrative mode ............. 562 5.2.4.7 Photodiodes ...............•.....• 563 5.2.5 Photogates.............................. 566 6 Sensors D: Systems.............. 681 5.2.6 Other sensing elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . • .• 569 5.3 Readout. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 570 6.1 Introduction................. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 681 5.3.1 Vacuum-tube cameras ......•.............. 573 6.2 Quantization and resolution. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 683 Table of Contents xi 6.3 Grayscale quantization • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 684 6.6.3.5 Asynchronous reset. ............... 784 6.3.1 Grayscale resolution ...................... 685 6.6.4 Physical characteristics .................... 785 6.3.2 Quantization noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 688 6.6.4.1 Geometric faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 787 6.6.4.2 Protection........................ 787 6.4 Spatial resolution.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 690 6.6.4.3 Electrical parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 788 6.4.1 Resolving power ......................... 693 6.6.5 Photometric correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 788 6.4.1.1 Resolution test charts .............. 695 6.4.1.2 Spatial frequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 696 6.7 Specialized cameras •.••••.••••••••••••••••.•.• 798 6.4.1.3 Nyquist-Shannon criterion .......... 697 6.7.1 High-speed videography .................. 798 6.4.2 Modulation-transfer function ............... 701 6.7.2 High-resolution cameras ................... 801 6.4.2.1 Optical systems theory . . . . . . . . . . . .. 706 6.7.3 Digital cameras .......................... 802 6.4.2.2 Contrast-transfer function ........... 708 6.7.3.1 Smart cameras .................... 803 6.4.2.3 Optical subsystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 714 Smart photosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 805 6.4.2.4 Sensor subsystem ................. 718 6.7.3.2 Frame-storage cameras ............. 810 6.4.2.5 Video bandwidth and resolution. . . . .. 722 6.7.4 Circular arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 812 6.4.2.6 System resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 725 6.7.5 Intensified cameras.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 813 6.4.3 Artifacts and aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 727 6.7.5.1 Photomultiplier tubes .............. 814 6.4.4 Sub-pixel interpolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 731 6.7.5.2 Image-intensifier tubes ............. 815 6.5 Temporal quantization. . . . . • • . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 732 6.7.5.3 Gen I tubes ....................... 817 6.7.5.4 Gen II MCP intensifiers ............ 821 6.6 Sensor subsystem characteristics. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 733 6.7.5.5 Gen III intensifiers ................. 829 6.6.1 Video signal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 733 6.7.6 Thermal / IR imaging ..................... 829 6.6.1.1 RS-170video ..................... 736 6.7.6.1 IR imaging theory ................. 833 Interlacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 736 Two-color (ratio) IR ............... 840 Horizontal sync. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 739 6.7.6.2 IR detectors ...................... 841 Vertical sync .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 742 Thermoelectric detectors. . . . . . . . . . .. 843 Amplitudes ...................... 744 Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 843 Bandwidth / resolution . . . . . . . . . . . .. 746 Pyroelectric detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 844 6.6.1.2 CCIR ........................... 749 Thermoresistive detectors. . . . . . . . . .. 846 6.6.1.3 RS-330 .......................... 750 6.7.6.3 Quantum IR photodetectors ......... 847 6.6.1.4 EIA RS-343A .................... 751 Thermoconductive detectors. . . . . . . .. 848 6.6.1.5 Other standards ................... 751 Junction IR detectors ............... 851 6.6.1.6 Syncing ......................... 759 6.7.6.4 IR arrays ........................ 854 6.6.1.7 Gamma ......................... 760 PtSi arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 855 6.6.2 Camera optics ........................... 761 Extrinsic arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 857 6.6.2.1 Pixel size ........................ 761 Intrinsic arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 857 6.6.2.2 Lens selection .................... 762 Non-quantum arrays ............... 859 6.6.2.3 Lens parameters ................... 763 6.7.6.5 IR phosphors ..................... 859 6.6.2.4 Lens mounts ..................... 765 6.7.7 UV detectors ............................ 860 6.6.2.5 Lens format ...................... 768 6.7.8 X-ray detectors .......................... 861 6.6.2.6 IR-cut filter ...................... 771 6.7.8.1 Fluorescent screens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 866 6.6.3 Video modes of operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 772 6.7.8.2 Converter tubes ................... 867 6.6.3.1 Solid-state shuttering ............... 773 6.7.8.3 Fiber scintillator .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 869 6.6.3.2 Frame / field modes ................ 775 Non-interlaced frame integration ..... 776 6.8 Summary .................................... 869 Non-interlaced field integration ...... 776 Bibliography ......................... 873 Interlaced field integration .......... 778 6.6.3.3 Fast-access modes ................. 783 6.6.3.4 Slow-scan modes .................. 784 Index ................................ 894
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