Illustrating Concepts and Phenomena in Psychology: A Teacher-Friendly Compendium of Examples PDF
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Springer Texts in Education E. Leslie Cameron Douglas A. Bernstein Illustrating Concepts and Phenomena in Psychology A Teacher-Friendly Compendium of Examples Springer Texts in Education Springer Texts in Education delivers high-quality instructional content for graduates and advanced graduates in all areas of Education and Educational Research. The textbook series is comprised of self-contained books with a broad and comprehensive coverage that are suitable for class as well as for individual self-study. All texts are authored by established experts in their fields and offer a solid methodological background, accompanied by pedagogical materials to serve students such as practical examples, exercises, case studies etc. Textbooks published in the Springer Texts in Education series are addressed to graduate and advancedgraduatestudents,butalsotoresearchersasimportantresourcesfortheir education, knowledge and teaching. Please contact Natalie Rieborn at textbooks. [email protected] or your regular editorial contact person for queries or to submit your book proposal. More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/13812 E. Leslie Cameron (cid:129) Douglas A. Bernstein Illustrating Concepts and Phenomena in Psychology A Teacher-Friendly Compendium of Examples 123 E. Leslie Cameron Douglas A.Bernstein Department ofPsychological Science Department ofPsychology Carthage College University of SouthFlorida Kenosha,WI, USA Tampa,FL,USA ISSN 2366-7672 ISSN 2366-7680 (electronic) SpringerTexts inEducation ISBN978-3-030-85649-6 ISBN978-3-030-85650-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85650-2 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregard tojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword Ioftentalktostudentsaftermyclassesandaparticulargroupofthemwholivedin the same residence hall stands out in my memory. One member of the group was doing really well on the exams, much to her friends’ bewilderment. She did not studyaslongandhardforexamsasherfriendsdid,nordidshehaveabackground inpsychology,butshewasatthetopoftheclass.Inclass,thisstudentwouldsitin rapt attention, but would not take extensive notes like other students. One time I was talking with her and I asked her what she liked about the class. “I like the examples you give,” she said, “I think about them a lot outside of class.” She did not consider this studying because it did not involve notecards or highlighting. Based on what we know about the power of good examples to facilitate learning, however, this was actually a powerful form of studying (Chiu & Chi, 2014). This book is intended to help you harness the power of good examples in your teaching. There are multiple and diverse examples for virtually every concept in psychology. Your job is to select the best ones for your teaching, which can be moredifficultthanyoumightthink.Theeffectivenessofanexampledependsonthe academic context. Factors such as the students’ prior knowledge, their cultural backgrounds, and how they process the examples all influence effectiveness (cf. Chew & Cerbin, 2020). An example that is effective at a large, open enrollment, public university might not be effective at a small, selective historically black collegeoruniversity.Whatiseffectiveatatwo-yearcommunitycollegefocusedon vocational training may not be effective at a small liberal arts college. Teachers must determine which examples work best for their students. There are two basic truths about examples, one of which is generally acknowledged but the other of which is generally ignored. The truth we acknowledge, and the reason for this book, is that examples can be powerful tools to enhance student learning. No pedagogical approach, be it traditional lecture or technology-enhanced collaborative group learning, discounts the usefulness and importance of good examples. Pedagogical research overwhelmingly supports the usefulness of examples. The truth we generally ignore is that using examples effectively is neither simple nor straightforward (Chew, 2007). Poor examples are not just ineffective, they can actually hurt learning. Too often, teachers come up v vi Foreword withexamplesthatareintuitivelycleartothem,butwhatiscleartoanexpertwith yearsoftrainingmaynotbecleartostudentslearningpsychologyforthefirsttime. Many years ago, I had both teachers and students of psychology rate a set of examples for their clarity and effectiveness. I found good agreement among teachersaboutwhatwasagoodexample,andgoodagreementamongstudents,but littleagreementbetweenteachersandstudents.Thisbookprovidesyouwithapool ofexamplestotryoutinyourclasses.Thebestexamplesmaynotbetheonesyou expect. Research has also found that students, especially weaker students, typically do not make the best use of examples (Chiu & Chi, 2014). Good students reflect on them and map the components of the example onto the critical aspects of the concept,asinthecaseofmystudentabove.Weakerstudentstendtomemorizethe example, thinking that if they remember the example, then they understand the concept. Alternatively, they may focus on the superficial elements of an example rather than its key structural elements. They may learn about Pavlov and classical conditioning and think it only applies to dogs and food. They do not see classical conditioning as a fundamental form of learning that applies to a wide array of situations,suchasdrugaddictionandprejudice.Whenteachingwithexamples,itis always agoodidea toprompt studentstoreflect onexamplesandthinkabouthow the example relates to the concept. When you teach a course multipletimes, it isalwaysa good idea torefine your teachingmethodsandactivitiestomakethecoursebetter.Thisbookwillhelp you to refine the examples you use and how you use them. Good teachers have “tried andtrue”examplesforeveryconceptthattheyteach,buttheyalsohavePlanBand PlanCexamplesaswell.Nosingleexampleisgoingtobeeffectiveforeveryonein the class, and this book will provide you with multiple, diverse examples. Examples are powerful because they can be used to achieve multiple learning goals.Theycanbeusedaspartofformativeassessmentstogivestudentsfeedback about their level of understanding. They can be used to address the common misconceptionsstudentsoftenhaveaboutpsychology.Theycanbeusedtopromote goodlearninghabits,likespacedpractice,interleaving,andretrievalpractice.They canhelpstudentsseetherelevanceofwhattheyarelearningbeyondtheclassitself and promote the transfer of knowledge. But to do all of these things, you have to start with a set of good examples. You have that in this book. To use an analogy (which is a form of example), you are like a chef with a wide assortment offine ingredients. What you can create with them is limited only by your creativity. Stephen L. Chew Samford University Birmingham, AL, USA Foreword vii References Chew, S. L. (2007). Designing effective examples and problems for teaching statistics. In D. S. Dunn, R. A. Smith, & B. Beins (Eds.), Best practices for teaching statistics and researchmethodsinthebehavioralsciences(pp.73–91),Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum. Chew,S.L.,&Cerbin,W.J.(2020).Thecognitivechallengesofeffectiveteaching.TheJournalof EconomicEducation,https://doi.org/10.1080/00220485.2020.1845266. Chiu, J. L., & Chi, M. T. H. (2014). Supporting self-explanation in the classroom. In V. A. Benassi, C. E. Overson, & C. M. Hakala (Eds.), Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science in the curriculum (pp. 91–103). Society for the TeachingofPsychology.https://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php. Preface Likeotherprofessorswhoteachpsychology,weareperpetuallyseekingever-better examplesoftheconcepts,theories,andphenomenathatweintroduceinclass.Itis important to have these examples because, as we know from research in cognitive psychology and from long experience in teaching, they help make course material more interesting and they help students understand, learn, and remember it (e.g., Craik & Lockhart, 1972). This is particularly true if the examples are clear, vivid, offbeat,funny,orrelevanttostudents’lifeexperiences(Bernstein,Frantz,&Chew, 2020; Rogers, Kuiper & Kirker, 1977). For psychology teachers in the USA, a reminder of the importance of giving good examples is contained in the latest edition of the American Psychological Association’s Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major (version 2.0; APA, 2013). Specifically, Outcome 1.3a (p. 21) states that students completing a psychology major should ideally be able to describe examples of relevant and practicalapplicationsofpsychologicalprinciples.Thevalueofthisoutcomeliesin assuring that students can recognize how those principles apply to everyday life. To help them do so, teachers must be ready with plenty of examples. The problem is that psychology teachers are generally on their own when it comes to finding the most useful and compelling examples to illustrate and animate the vast array of material included in most psychology courses, especially introductory psychology.Theyhavetosearchfor(orstumbleupon)thosegemsofexamplesthat are scattered far and wide in scholarly books, journal articles, textbooks, instruc- tors’ manuals, test banks, discussion group threads, teaching conference presenta- tions, blogs, and YouTube videos, among other places. As a result, many teachers ofpsychology—particularlythosewhoarenewtoteachingorareteachingacourse for the first time—find that good, useful examples are in short supply, especially when,assooftenhappensintheintroductorycourse,theyareteachingmaterialthat isoutsidetheirownareaofspecialization.Generatingexamplesontheflyinclassis difficult,andfindinggood,accurate,anderror-freeexamplesinadvancetakesalot of time—as we can attest after having created this compendium. Asking students forexamplesinclassisrisky;theresultscanrangefromthesurprisinglygoodtothe stunningly incorrect, inappropriate, or bizarre, leading to confusion at best and awkward or embarrassing moments at worst. ix x Preface To illustrate the problem, imagine that you are an industrial/organizational psychologist teaching your first introductory psychology course, and today’s class is on the basic principles of classical conditioning, including the concept of neg- ative reinforcement. You introduce this widely misunderstood phenomenon by saying that it involves strengthening a behavior by removing a negative reinforcer after the behavior occurs. You have correctly described the process, but many of your students will not have a clue as to what you mean. To help them understand, youoffertheexampleofaratinacagewhoseflooriselectrifiedandisdeliveringa continuous,uncomfortableshockthatwillstopwhentheratpressesabutton.Ifthe rat learns to press the button, it will have done so via negative reinforcement; button-pressingwasstrengthenedbytheremovaloftheshock.Gotit?Fivepercent ofyourstudentswillunderstand,whiletherestwillprobablyjustwritedownwhat yousaidandhopethatitwillnotbeonthetest(itwillbe).Someofthemmightask forclarification,butyoumightnotbeabletooffermuchbeyondwhatyoualready said. If you then move on to the next topic, the majority of your class will either havetofigureoutthenegativereinforcementprincipleontheirownortosimplyfail to understand it, thus helping to perpetuate the widely held misconception that negative reinforcement is the same as punishment. Worse yet, you will not look forward to trying to teach this difficult concept in thefuture.Experiences likethis areamong thefactors thatcreateteachinganxiety, impair relationships with students, and reduce some teachers’ motivation to try to improve their courses (Bernstein, 1983; Bernstein, Frantz, & Chew, 2020). What you need are more and better examples, including those available on YouTube, in cartoons, in clinical case studies, or scenarios such as these: 1. We learn to push our TV’s mute button through negative reinforcement; pressing it eliminates the sounds of a commercial or a commentator that we cannot stand. 2. We learn to take pain relievers through negative reinforcement because after doing so, our pain disappears. 3. We learn to get out of unpleasant social situations through negative reinforce- ment, as when we end a boring date early after complaining of an imaginary headache. 4. Our fear of spiders can be solidified through negative reinforcement when we escapeanxietybychangingthechannelwhenaspiderappearsonanatureshow. 5. We learn to fasten our seat belts through negative reinforcementbecause doing so stops that annoying reminder chime. Adding a few of these examples would probably have helped students to better understand the concept of negative reinforcement.
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