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Hydrology and Water Supply for Pond Aquaculture PDF

496 Pages·1994·14.85 MB·English
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Hydrology and Water Supply for Pond Aquaculture Hydrology and Water Supply for Pond Aquaculture Kyung H. Yoo Department of Agricultural Engineering Auburn University, Alabama Claude E. Boyd Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Auburn University, Alabama An&mViBook SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. An AVIBook Copyright © 1994 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1994 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1994 AH rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or by an information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Yoo, Kyung H., 1945- Hydrology and water supply for pond aquaculturelKyung H. Y 00 and Cluade E. Boyd. p. cm. "An AVI Book." Includes bibliol!Taohicai references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-6133-6 ISBN 978-1-4615-2640-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2640-7 1. Fish ponds-Design and construction. 2. Fish ponds-Water- supply. 3. Water-supplyengineering. 1. Boyd, Claude E. II. Title SHI57.85.F52Y66 1993 639.3'II-dc20 92-26643 CIP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available Contents Preface, ix Symbols, xi Abbreviations, xix Customary Metric Conversion Factors, xxi Introduction 1 Amount of Water Use, 2 Sources of Water, 3 Ponds, 5 Alternatives to Ponds, 7 Water Supply Development, 7 Environmental Impacts, 8 PART I: HYDROLOGY, MORPHOMETRY, AND SOILS 1 Physical Properties of Water and Water Cycle 13 1.1 Introduction, 13 1.2 Physical Properties, 13 1.3 Pressure, 23 1.4 Water Flow, 27 1.5 The Hydrologic Equation, 31 1.6 Watersheds, 32 1.7 The Water Cycle, 32 1.8 Distribution of Water on the Earth's Surface, 35 2 Rainfall 37 2.1 Introduction, 37 2.2 The Process, 37 2.3 Types of Rainfall, 39 2.4 Transportation of Water Vapor and Precipitation, 42 2.5 Measuring Rainfall, 47 2.6 Rainfall at a Point, 49 2.7 Rainfall over an Area, 58 3 Evaporation 63 3.1 Introduction, 63 3.2 The Process, 64 vi Contents 3.3 Estimates of Evaporation, 65 3.4 Measuring Evaporation with Instruments, 69 3.5 Evaporation Rates, 72 3.6 Precipitation-Evaporation Relationship, 76 3.7 Water Loss by Plants, 77 3.8 Determining Evapotranspiration, 80 3.9 Rates of Evapotranspiration, 88 3.10 Hydroclimate, 90 4 Runoff 92 4.1 Introduction, 92 4.2 The Process, 92 4.3 Methods for Estimating Runoff, 93 4.4 Amounts of Runoff, 108 4.5 Streams, 112 5 Water Requirements for Aquacultural Ponds 121 5.1 Introduction, 121 5.2 Basic Water Budget Equations, 121 5.3 Measurements of Variables, 122 5.4 Examples of Measured Water Budgets, 129 5.5 Estimating Water Requirements, 132 5.6 Climatic Factors, 143 5.7 Seepage Effects on Water Requirements, 146 5.8 Pond-Filling Time, 147 6 Water Conservation 148 6.1 Introduction, 148 6.2 Control of Evaporation, 148 6.3 Seepage Reduction, 151 6.4 Storage Capabilities, 157 6.5 Water Harvesting, 160 6.6 Water Reuse, 162 7 Morphometric and Edaphic Factors Affecting Pond Design 164 7.1 Introduction, 164 7.2 Morphometry, 164 7.3 Soils, 171 7.4 Sediment, 181 7.5 Turbidity and Color, 185 PART II: DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY AND POND SYSTEMS 8 Open-Channel Flows 189 8.1 Introduction, 189 8.2 Conservation of Energy in Open-Channel Flows, 189 Contents vii 8.3 Continuity Equation, 192 8.4 The Manning Equation, 193 8.5 Best Hydraulic Section, 198 8.6 Stability of Open Channels, 199 8.7 Channel Design, 207 9 Pipe Flows 224 9.1 Introduction, 224 9.2 Hydraulic Principles of Pipe Flows, 224 9.3 Head Losses in Pipe Flows, 231 9.4 Design Techniques of Pipelines, 241 9.5 Water Hammer, 249 9.6 Culverts, 251 9.7 Siphons, 260 10 Water Measurement 264 10.1 Introduction, 264 10.2 Units, 264 10.3 Principles of Water Measurement, 265 10.4 Small Flows, 266 10.5 Water Measurement of Open-Channel Flows, 267 10.6 Water Measurement of Pipe Flows, 292 10.7 Water Measurement for Culverts and Siphons, 299 11 Pumps and Pumping 300 11.1 Introduction, 300 11.2 Centrifugal Pumps, 301 11.3 Performance of Centrifugal Pumps, 309 11.4 Power Units, 331 11.5 Pump Selection, 349 11.6 Cost of Pumping Water, 352 11.7 Installation of Pumps, 355 11.8 Operation and Maintenance of Pumps, 355 12 Ground Water and Wells 359 12.1 Introduction, 359 12.2 Aquifers, 359 12.3 Wells, 370 12.4 Pumping of Ground Water, 389 12.5 Well Test, 393 12.6 Well Construction, 394 13 Pond Design and Construction 397 13.1 Introduction, 397 13.2 Site Selection, 398 13.3 Soils, 400 13.4 Embankments, 405 13.5 Water-Control Structures, 413 Vlll Contents 13.6 Pond Bottom, 425 13.7 Other Features, 426 13.8 Excavated Ponds, 427 13.9 Surveying and Staking, 428 13.10 Example Problems for Pond Design, 429 14 Pond Effluents 438 14.1 Introduction, 438 14.2 Water Quality in Ponds, 439 14.3 Volume of Effluents, 443 14.4 Dilution and Assimilation by Receiving Waters, 444 14.5 Effects of Effluents on Water Supply, 445 14.6 Mitigation, 446 14.7 Environmental Impact of Aquaculture, 448 Appendix A Conversion Tables 453 Appendix B Determining Friction Head Losses due to Pipe and Pipe Fittings 459 References 469 Index, 479 Preface In 1979, several graduate students in the Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures at Auburn University met with one of the authors (CEB) and asked him to teach a new course on water supply for aqua culture. They felt that information on climatology, hydrology, water distribution systems, pumps, and wells would be valuable to them. Most of these students were planning to work in commercial aquaculture in the United States or abroad, and they thought that such a cdurse would better prepare them to plan aquaculture projects and to communicate with engineers, contractors, and other specialists who often become involved in the planning and construction phases of aquaculture en deavors. The course was developed, and after a few years it was decided that more effective presentation of some of the material could be made by an engineer. The other author (KHY) accepted the challenge, and three courses on the water supply aspects of aquaculture are now offered at Auburn University. A course providing background in hydrology is followed by courses on selected topics from water supply engineering. Most graduate programs in aquaculture at other universities will even tually include similar coursework, because students need a formal intro duction to this important, yet somewhat neglected, part of aquaculture. We have written this book to serve as a text for a course in water supply for aquaculture or for individual study. The book is divided into two parts. Part I, "Hydrology, Morphometry, and Soils," is concerned with hydrological phenomena that affect pond design, construction, and management. Part II, "Design of Water Supply and Pond Systems," deals primarily with engineering techniques used in design and con struction of pond aquaculture facilities. The information in this book is not intended for specialists in the fields of water supply engineering or hydrology. It was written to provide individuals involved in pond aquaculture projects a background on the major points that must be addressed in site selection, design of ponds and water supply systems, and operation of ponds within restraints imposed by local hydrology and other environmental factors. Never theless, water supply specialists who have never been involved in aqua culture projects may find this book useful as an orientation to the kinds of problems involved in water supply engineering for aquaculture. ix x Preface In the Vnited States, and in many other nations, nearly all practical work in hydrology and engineering uses the V.S. Customary System of units, and since most of the information available to us for preparing this text was in these units, we used them throughout the text. However, for a few topics, such as properties of water and consumption of elec tricity, we used metric units because they are almost always given that way. We see no benefit in one system of units over another in practical work, because there is no international standard for measurements in daily endeavors. For example, in shrimp farming, production is reported in pounds per hectare in Ecuador and in kilograms per rai (a unit equal to 1600 m2) in Thailand. Nearly anywhere in the world, you are likely to hear pipe sizes reported in inches and motor power in horsepower. However, discharge may be given in cubic meters per second. We find this slightly bewildering mixture of units rather refreshing. After all, variety is a very useful thing; it keeps us alert and prevents monotony. Readers accustomed to other systems of measurement can readily convert from V.S. Customary units to their system. Appendix A lists factors for converting V.S. Customary units to metric units, and vice versa. The authors are indebted to many individuals and organizations in preparing this book. We are grateful to Nathan Stone, Barnaby Watten, Delbert Fitzsimmons, George Bloomsburg, Bryan Duncan, Eugene Rochester, and others who provided information or reviewed chapters of the manuscript. We also appreciate the assistance of Teresa Rodriguez and Steve Etheridge with the illustrations. The typing and editorial help provided by June Burns and Margaret Tanner was extremely valuable. The authors are also indebted to the following V.S. government agencies for use of their published materials; V.S. Soil Conservation Service, V.S. Bureau of Reclamation, V.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and U.S. National Weather Service. Most of all the authors wish to thank their families for their patience and encouragement during this difficult task. Symbols Chapter 1 A = area, cross-sectional area of flow (length2) D = depth of fluid F = force g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2 or 9.8 m/sec2) HL = head loss between two points Hv = velocity head (ft or m) i = hydraulic gradient (ftlft) K = hydraulic conductivity (length/time) n = porosity P = pressure Q = discharge (length3/time) v = velocity of topmost layer (ftlsec or m/sec) Z = elevation of a point above the reference plane v = kinematic viscosity p = density y = unit weight of water (62.4lb/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3) TJ = absolute viscosity Chapter 2 ea = actual vapor pressure es = saturation vapor pressure RH = relative humidity in percent Chapter 3 b = empirical coefficient(s) Cp = pan coefficient D = deep percolation of water that drains from soil E = evaporation (in.lhr) e = vapor pressure (in. Hg) ea = actual vapor pressure (in. Hg) ea5 = actual vapor pressure at 5 ft above ground level (in. Hg) Eday = daily evaporation (in.lday) EL = evaporation from lake Ep = evaporation from pan ET = evapotranspiration ETD = daily evapotranspiration (mm) ETM = monthly evapotranspiration (mm) xi

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In 1979, several graduate students in the Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures at Auburn University met with one of the authors (CEB) and asked him to teach a new course on water supply for aqua­ culture. They felt that information on climatology, hydrology, water distribution systems, p
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