Hydroelectric energy: renewable energy and the environment

419 Pages·2017·13.02 MB·English

by  Karki

HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY
Renewable Energy
and the Environment
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SERIES EDITOR
Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University
PUBLISHED TITLES
Hydroelectric Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment
Bikash Pandey and Ajoy Karki
Geologic Fundamentals of Geothermal Energy
David R. Boden
Introduction to Bioenergy
Vaughn Nelson and Kenneth Starcher
Introduction to Renewable Energy, Second Edition
Vaughn Nelson and Kenneth Starcher
Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy
Frank R. Spellman
Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment,
Second Edition
William E. Glassley
Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts
Kenneth J. Skipka and Louis Theodore
Finance Policy for Renewable Energy and a Sustainable Environment
Michael Curley
Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition
Vaughn Nelson
Solar Radiation: Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications
Daryl R. Myers
Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements
Frank Vignola, Joseph Michalsky, and Thomas Stoffel
Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications
Frank Spellman
Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment
Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi, Alma Cota,
Jeanette Moore, and Vaughn Nelson
HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY
Renewable Energy
and the Environment
Bikash Pandey
Ajoy Karki
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Pandey, Bikash, author. | Karki, Ajoy, author.
Title: Hydroelectric energy : renewable energy and the environment / Bikash
Pandey and Ajoy Karki.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2017. | Series: Energy and the
environment | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016017621 | ISBN 9781439811672 (hardcover : acid-free
paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Water-power. | Hydroelectric power plants--Environmental
aspects. | Water resources development.
Classification: LCC TK1081 .P34 2017 | DDC 621.31/2134--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016017621
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
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Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................xv
Authors ...........................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Development of Hydropower ........................................................................................1
1.1 Ancient History of Waterpower .........................................................................1
1.1.1 Waterwheel Designs from Ancient Times ...........................................1
1.1.2 Waterpower in Other Parts of the World in Antiquity .........................5
1.2 Waterpower’s Contribution to the Industrial Revolution ...................................5
1.2.1 Waterwheel to Water Turbine ...............................................................6
1.2.2 Hydroelectricity ....................................................................................8
1.2.3 Size Classification ................................................................................9
1.3 Drivers of and Deterrents to Hydropower Development .................................10
1.3.1 Climate Change ..................................................................................11
1.3.2 Hydropower for Energy Access ..........................................................12
Notes .. .............................................................................................................................12
References ..................................................................................................................13
Chapter 2 Basics of Hydropower ................................................................................................15
2.1 Hydropower Types and Their Components .....................................................15
2.2 Power Output from Hydroelectric Power Plants .............................................15
2.3 Types and Components of Hydropower ..........................................................19
2.3.1 Waterways ..........................................................................................20
2.3.2 Dam or Diversion Weir ......................................................................20
2.3.3 Intake and Headworks ........................................................................21
2.3.4 Headrace .............................................................................................23
2.3.5 Gravel Trap and Settling Basin ..........................................................24
2.3.6 Spillway ..............................................................................................25
2.3.7 Crossings ............................................................................................26
2.3.8 Forebay ...............................................................................................27
2.3.9 Penstock Pipe .....................................................................................28
2.3.10 Anchor Block ......................................................................................29
2.3.11 Support Pier ........................................................................................30
2.3.12 Powerhouse .........................................................................................31
2.3.12.1 Inside the Powerhouse ........................................................32
2.4 Storage Type Hydroelectric Plants ..................................................................37
Chapter 3 Site Selection and Feasibility Study for Hydropower Projects ...................................39
3.1 Overview .........................................................................................................39
3.2 Measurement of Head ......................................................................................40
3.2.1 Level Machines, Theodolites, or Total Stations .................................40
3.2.2 Global Positioning System (GPS) .......................................................40
3.2.3 Abney Level .......................................................................................42
3.3 Measurement Procedure ..................................................................................43
v
vi Contents
3.3.1 Measurement of River Flows .............................................................44
3.3.2 Flow Measurements Using a Conductivity Meter ..............................44
3.3.2.1 Measurement Procedure .....................................................45
3.3.2.2 Discharge Measurement .....................................................46
3.3.2.3 Determination of K Value...................................................51
3.3.3 Flow Measurements Using a Current Meter ......................................53
3.3.3.1 Flow Measurement Procedure ............................................54
3.3.3.2 Calibration of Current Meter ..............................................57
3.4 Flow Measurement Using Float Method .........................................................58
3.4.1 Float Method Procedure .....................................................................58
3.5 Sizing of a Micro or Mini Hydropower Plant ..................................................59
3.5.1 Flow Duration Curve ..........................................................................61
3.6 Site Selection ...................................................................................................63
3.6.1 Market Study and Licensing ..............................................................63
3.6.2 Site Selection and Layout ...................................................................68
3.6.3 Feasibility Study .................................................................................69
3.7 Project Implementation Schedule ....................................................................73
Chapter 4 Intake and Diversion Works .......................................................................................77
4.1 Overview .........................................................................................................77
4.2 Types of Intake ................................................................................................78
4.2.1 Side Intake ..........................................................................................78
4.2.2 Bottom Intake .....................................................................................80
4.2.3 Frontal Intake .....................................................................................82
4.2.4 Diversion Weir ....................................................................................83
4.3 Trash Racks for Intakes ...................................................................................87
4.3.1 Orifice Design ....................................................................................87
4.3.2 Use of Gates at Orifice .......................................................................91
4.4 River Training Works ......................................................................................93
4.4.1 Head Over Weir ..................................................................................94
References ..................................................................................................................95
Chapter 5 Headrace .....................................................................................................................97
5.1 Overview .........................................................................................................97
5.2 Basic Criteria for Headrace Sizing ..................................................................97
5.2.1 Other Considerations for Headrace Canals ......................................101
5.2.1.1 Earthen Canal ...................................................................102
5.2.1.2 Stone Masonry Canal .......................................................103
5.2.1.3 Concrete Canals ................................................................104
5.3 Headrace Canal Design .................................................................................105
5.3.1 Manning’s Equation .........................................................................105
5.3.2 Headrace Canal Design Procedure ..................................................106
5.4 Spillways ........................................................................................................112
5.4.1 Location of Spillways .......................................................................112
5.4.2 Spillway Design ................................................................................112
5.4.3 Design of Spillway ...........................................................................116
5.5 Headrace Pipe ................................................................................................116
5.5.1 General .............................................................................................116
Contents vii
5.5.2 Design Criteria .................................................................................116
5.5.3 Design Procedure .............................................................................117
References ................................................................................................................122
Chapter 6 Gravel Trap, Settling Basin, and Forebay ................................................................123
6.1 Overview .......................................................................................................123
6.1.1 Functions of the Structures ..............................................................123
6.1.2 Location of Structure .......................................................................124
6.2 Sediment Transport Capacity of River ..........................................................126
6.3 Theory of Sedimentation ...............................................................................126
6.3.1 Stokes Law .......................................................................................126
6.3.2 Settling Velocity ...............................................................................128
6.3.3 Temperature Correction ...................................................................128
6.3.4 Turbulence in Settling Basin ............................................................128
6.3.5 Theory of Sediment Transport .........................................................129
6.3.6 Mechanics of Sediment Transport (Tractive Force Theory) ............129
6.3.6.1 Shield’s Formula ...............................................................130
6.4 Gravel Trap ....................................................................................................132
6.4.1 Components of Gravel Trap .............................................................132
6.4.2 Types of Gravel Trap ........................................................................133
6.4.3 Design Criteria of Gravel Trap .........................................................134
6.4.4 Practical Considerations ...................................................................135
6.5 Settling Basin ................................................................................................135
6.5.1 Components of Settling Basin ..........................................................136
6.5.1.1 Inlet Zone ..........................................................................136
6.5.1.2 Settling Zone ....................................................................137
6.5.1.3 Outlet Zone .......................................................................137
6.5.2 Types of Settling Basin ....................................................................140
6.5.3 Selection of Type of Settling Basin ..................................................140
6.5.3.1 Ease of Operation .............................................................140
6.5.3.2 Water Availability .............................................................140
6.5.3.3 Cost of Construction .........................................................140
6.5.3.4 Power Requirement ...........................................................140
6.5.4 Design Criteria .................................................................................141
6.5.4.1 Settling Capacity ..............................................................141
6.5.4.2 Storage Capacity ...............................................................141
6.5.4.3 Flushing Capacity .............................................................141
6.5.5 Basic Principles for Design of Settling Basin ..................................141
6.5.6 Fall Velocity of Sediment and Particle Size .....................................142
6.5.7 Settling Basin Design .......................................................................144
6.5.8 Efficiency of Settling Basin ..............................................................144
6.5.9 Camp’s Method ................................................................................144
6.5.10 Storage Design .................................................................................145
6.5.11 Flushing Design................................................................................145
6.6 Forebay ..........................................................................................................148
6.6.1 Components of Forebay....................................................................149
6.6.2 Design Criteria .................................................................................149
6.7 Spillway .........................................................................................................149
6.8 Structural Design of Settling Basin and Forebay ..........................................149
References ................................................................................................................155
viii Contents
Chapter 7 Penstocks ..................................................................................................................157
7.1 Overview .......................................................................................................157
7.2 Selection of the Penstock Alignment ............................................................157
7.2.1 Forebay Location ..............................................................................157
7.2.2 Practical Ground Slope ....................................................................157
7.2.3 Minimum Number of Bends ............................................................158
7.2.4 Space for Powerhouse Area ..............................................................158
7.2.5 Stability ............................................................................................158
7.2.6 Other Site-Specific Conditions .........................................................159
7.3 Profile of the Selected Alignment .................................................................159
7.4 Selection of Pipe ............................................................................................160
7.4.1 Pipe Materials ..................................................................................160
7.4.1.1 Steel ..................................................................................160
7.4.1.2 HDPE ................................................................................161
7.4.1.3 GRP ..................................................................................161
7.4.2 Pipe Diameter ...................................................................................161
7.4.2.1 Head Loss along the Pipe .................................................161
7.4.2.2 Abrasion ............................................................................162
7.4.2.3 Cost of Penstock ...............................................................162
7.4.2.4 Governing Condition of the Turbine/Cost of Turbine
Governor ...........................................................................162
7.4.2.5 Limitation of Pipe Manufacturers ....................................163
7.4.3 Pipe Optimization ............................................................................163
7.4.3.1 Procedure to Select the Pipe Diameter .............................163
7.4.3.2 Calculate Thickness of Pipe .............................................167
7.4.3.3 Calculate the Cost .............................................................167
7.4.3.4 Select the Pipe...................................................................167
7.5 Surge Pressure in Penstock ............................................................................167
7.5.1 General .............................................................................................167
7.5.2 Pelton Turbine ..................................................................................169
7.5.3 Cross-Flow Turbine ..........................................................................170
7.5.4 Quick Method for Small Schemes with Cross-Flow Turbines .........171
7.6 Pipe Wall Thickness ......................................................................................171
7.6.1 Positive Internal Pressure .................................................................171
7.6.2 Negative Internal Pressure ...............................................................172
7.6.3 Transportation Requirements ...........................................................173
7.6.4 Embedded Penstock .........................................................................173
7.7 Penstock Accessories .....................................................................................173
7.7.1 Air Vents and Air Valves .................................................................173
7.7.2 Drain Pipes .......................................................................................173
7.7.3 Pressure Relief Valves ......................................................................174
7.7.4 Bends and Branches .........................................................................174
7.8 Pipe Jointing ..................................................................................................174
7.8.1 General .............................................................................................174
7.8.2 Site Welding .....................................................................................175
7.8.3 Flange Connection ...........................................................................175
7.8.4 HDPE and PVC Pipes ......................................................................175
7.9 Pipe Lengths ..................................................................................................176
7.9.1 Mild Steel Pipe .................................................................................176
7.9.2 HDPE and PVC Pipes ......................................................................176
Contents ix
7.10 Exposed versus Buried Penstock ...................................................................177
7.10.1 Expansion Joints ...............................................................................177
7.10.1.1 Mild Steel Pipes ................................................................178
7.10.1.2 HDPE Pipes ......................................................................178
7.10.1.3 PVC Pipes .........................................................................178
7.10.1.4 Sizing of Expansion Joints ................................................178
7.11 Painting ..........................................................................................................179
7.11.1 Outside Surface of Aboveground Mild Steel Pipes ..........................179
7.11.2 Outside Surface Pipe Which Will Be Buried or Cast
into Anchor Blocks ...........................................................................179
7.11.3 Inside Surface of Pipes .....................................................................179
7.12 Installation .....................................................................................................180
7.13 Maintenance ..................................................................................................181
7.14 Checklist for Penstock Work .........................................................................181
References ................................................................................................................184
Chapter 8 Powerhouse ...............................................................................................................185
8.1 Overview .......................................................................................................185
8.2 Classification of the Powerhouse ...................................................................185
8.3 Equipment and Accessories in the Powerhouse ............................................185
8.3.1 Other Components and Accessories .................................................186
8.4 Layout of Powerhouse ...................................................................................186
8.4.1 Arrangement of Turbines and Generator .........................................187
8.5 Components of Powerhouse Structure ..........................................................188
8.6 Site Selection of the Powerhouse ...................................................................189
8.7 Design of the Powerhouse .............................................................................189
8.7.1 General .............................................................................................189
8.7.2 Sizing of the Powerhouse .................................................................190
8.7.3 Examples of Powerhouse Layout......................................................190
8.8 Design of Machine Foundation .....................................................................192
8.8.1 General Guideline for Machine Foundation ....................................196
8.8.2 Stability of Machine Foundation ......................................................196
8.8.3 Vibration in Powerhouse ..................................................................197
8.8.4 Analysis of Vibration and Empirical Design Methods ....................198
8.9 Design of Superstructure ...............................................................................198
8.9.1 Analysis and Design of Superstructure ............................................199
8.10 Construction of Powerhouse ..........................................................................199
8.10.1 Construction Sequence of Powerhouse ............................................199
8.10.2 Guideline for Concrete Works ..........................................................200
8.11 Tailrace ..........................................................................................................207
8.11.1 General .............................................................................................207
8.11.2 Design of Tailrace ............................................................................207
References ................................................................................................................207
Chapter 9 Hydraulic Turbines ...................................................................................................209
9.1 Basic Theory ..................................................................................................209
9.1.1 Turbine Power Output ......................................................................210
9.1.2 Transfer of Energy to the Runner .....................................................212
9.1.3 Improving Efficiency of Energy Transfer ........................................216