Hydraulic Fracturing in Unconventional Reservoirs. Theories, Operations, and Economic Analysis

432 Pages·2016·27.482 MB·English

by  Hoss Belyadi, Ebrahim Fathi and Fatemeh Belyadi (Auth.)

HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING
IN UNCONVENTIONAL
RESERVOIRS
HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING
IN UNCONVENTIONAL
RESERVOIRS
Theories, Operations, and Economic
Analysis
HOSS BELYADI
CONSOL Energy Inc.
EBRAHIM FATHI
West Virginia University
FATEMEH BELYADI
West Virginia University
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Gas chromatograph. 3
Figure 1.2 Gas resources pyramid. 7
Figure 1.3 Typical shale and coal comparison. 10
Figure 1.4 Gamma ray log. 12
Figure 2.1 Schematic of typical Langmuir isotherm. 17
Figure 2.2 Different adsorption isotherm types. 18
Figure 2.3 Different hysteresis types. 19
Figure 2.4 Darcy’s law illustration. 24
Figure 2.5 Core plug pulse-decay permeameter. 24
Figure 2.6 Automated high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) 25
pulse-decay permeameter.
Figure 2.7 Double-cell Boyle’s law porosimeter. 26
Figure 3.1 Shale matrix bulk volume. 30
Figure 3.2 Impact of Langmuir volume on the total gas recovery 36
from horizontal shale gas.
Figure 4.1 Schematic of multicontinuum modeling approach. 39
Figure 4.2 Different hydraulic coupling used in multicontinuum 40
approach.
Figure 4.3 Dynamic contact angle measurement. 44
Figure 5.1 Complex fracture system illustration. 54
Figure 5.2 Biwing fracture system illustration. 56
Figure 5.3 20 lb linear gel system. 58
Figure 5.4 Foam quality vs lb of proppant per gallon of foam. 60
Figure 5.5 Tortuosity. 63
Figure 5.6 Frac design basis. 63
Figure 5.7 Densometer. 71
Figure 6.1 Curable resin-coated proppant at standard conditions. 75
Figure 6.2 Curable resin-coated proppant under reservoir 75
conditions.
Figure 6.3 Ceramic proppant. 77
Figure 6.4 100 mesh sand size. 78
Figure 6.5 Visual estimation of roundness and sphericity. 81
Figure 6.6 Test sieve shaker. 83
xiii
xiv ListofFigures
Figure 6.7 Effect of proppant size on dimensionless productivity 86
index for different reservoir permeability.
Figure 6.8 Effect of different proppant size and volume 86
combination on well dimensionless productivity
index.
Figure 6.9 Fracture width. 87
Figure 6.10 Matrix and hydraulic fracture interactions. 88
Figure 6.11 Fracture conductivity testing. 89
Figure 6.12 Relative permeability curve. 90
Figure 6.13 Proppant placement in hydraulic fracturing. 92
Figure 6.14 Proppant crushing embedment. 93
Figure 6.15 Dimensionless frac conductivity vs effective drainage 95
radius.
Figure 7.1 Various casing string illustrations. 101
Figure 7.2 Fracture growth limitation. 103
Figure 7.3 Geometryof single hydraulic fracture and fault plain. 104
Figure 7.4 Numerical simulation of change in slip tendency 105
around pressurized multistage hydraulic fractures
using finite element technique.
Figure 8.1 Schematic of flow loop apparatus. 109
Figure 8.2 Flow loop test results. 110
Figure 8.3 Linear base gel (polymer chains). 117
Figure 8.4 Cross-linked gel. 119
Figure 9.1 ISIP illustration. 123
Figure 9.2 ISIP selection. 124
Figure 9.3 Fracture extension pressure. 135
Figure 9.4 Closure pressure determination from injection 136
fall-off test.
Figure 9.5 Net pressure interpretation. 138
Figure 11.1 Composite bridge plug. 172
Figure 11.2 Perforation guns. 173
Figure 11.3 Inside viewof perforation guns. 173
Figure 11.4 Frac ball inside of a composite bridge plug for frac 174
stage isolation.
Figure 11.5 Plug and cluster spacing example. 174
Figure 12.1 Perforation phasing. 186
Figure 12.2 Bounded versus unbounded example. 189
ListofFigures xv
Figure 12.3 Up dip versus down dip. 190
Figure 12.4 Choke manifold. 195
Figure 12.5 Sand trap. 197
Figure 12.6 Horizontal separators. 200
Figure 12.7 Four-phase horizontal separator from inside. 200
Figure 12.8 Liquid level controller (LLC). 200
Figure 12.9 Back pressure regulator (BPR). 201
Figure 12.10 Mechanical pop-off. 201
Figure 12.11 Oil tanks (upright tanks). 203
Figure 12.12 Flare. 203
Figure 12.13 Nodal analysis. 205
Figure 13.1 Young’s modulus example. 209
Figure 13.2 Poisson’s ratio illustration. 212
Figure 13.3 Wells drilled perpendicular to max horizontal stress. 222
Figure 13.4 Longitudinal versus transverse fractures. 223
Figure 13.5 Well location and transverse fractures. 223
Figure 14.1 Typical fracture injection test. 227
Figure 14.2 BHP versus square root of time. 229
Figure 14.3 Square root of time example. 230
Figure 14.4 Log(cid:1)log plot. 232
Figure 14.5 Log(cid:1)log plot example. 233
Figure 14.6 Log(cid:1)log plot example 2. 234
Figure 14.7 Pressure-dependent leak-off. 236
Figure 14.8 G-function plot with PDL signature example. 238
Figure 14.9 Height recession behavior. 239
Figure 14.10 Height recession leak-off. 240
Figure 14.11 G-function plot with height recession signature 241
example.
Figure 14.12 Tip extension leak-off. 242
Figure 14.13 Horner analysis. 246
Figure 14.14 Horner analysis example. 247
Figure 14.15 Linear flow-time function plot (ACA). 248
Figure 14.16 Radial flow-time function plot. 249
Figure 15.1 Khristianovic(cid:1)Geertsma de Klerk (KGD) fracture 258
geometry, schematic diagram.
Figure 15.2 Perkins and Kern (PKN) fracture geometry, 258
schematic diagram.
xvi ListofFigures
Figure 15.3 Radial fracture geometry. 259
Figure 15.4 Schematic of pseudo-3D fracture model. 262
Figure 15.5 Different hydraulic fracturing regimes. 263
Figure 16.1 In-ground pit. 272
Figure 16.2 Above-ground storage tank (AST). 272
Figure 16.3 Tank batteries. 273
Figure 16.4 Centrifugal pump from inside. 276
Figure 16.5 Sand masters. 277
Figure 16.6 Sand masters and T-belt. 278
Figure 16.7 Hopper and blender screws. 278
Figure 16.8 Sand screws with proppant in the hopper. 279
Figure 16.9 Blender tub and blender screws. 283
Figure 16.10 Chemical totes. 283
Figure 16.11 High-pressured iron and low-pressured hose on the 285
missile.
Figure 16.12 Three-leg frac manifold. 286
Figure 16.13 An overviewof frac site. 287
Figure 16.14 Pressure chart. 288
Figure 16.15 Net bottom-hole pressure (NBHP) chart. 289
Figure 16.16 Chemical chart. 289
Figure 16.17 Frac equipment setup. 291
Figure 16.18 Pressure spike and pump trips. 291
Figure 16.19 Mechanical pop-off. 292
Figure 16.20 Pressure transducer. 293
Figure 16.21 Pressure transducer on a pump. 293
Figure 16.22 Tubing head with production tubing hung inside the 300
tubing hanger.
Figure 16.23 Hydraulic valve. 301
Figure 16.24 Flow cross, 2v and 4v sides. 302
Figure 16.25 Pneumatic vs. hydraulic ESD. 302
Figure 16.26 Manual valve. 303
Figure 16.27 Four-wayentry frac head (goat head). 303
Figure 16.28 Typical frac wellhead. 304
Figure 17.1 Nominal versus effective decline. 307
Figure 17.2 Gas well production decline with various b. 308
Figure 17.3 Exponential decline. 310
ListofFigures xvii
Figure 17.4 Hyperbolic decline. 310
Figure 17.5 Hyperbolic versus modified hyperbolic decline. 312
Figure 17.6 Secant versus tangent decline rates. 315
Figure 18.1 Net cash-flow (NCF) model. 326
Figure 18.2 Crossover point illustration. 366
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Typical Natural Gas Components 2
Table 1.2 General Uses for Natural Gas Components 2
Table 1.3 BTU of Each Natural Gas Component 3
Table 1.4 Weighted Average BTU Factor Example 4
Table 1.5 Different Types of Kerogen 9
Table 1.6 Vitrinite Reflectance Values and Reservoir 9
Relationship
Table 1.7 Typical TOC of North American Shale Plays 10
Table 3.1 Cumulative Gas Productions, Initial Gas in Place, 36
and Gas Recovery Factor Obtained for Different
Langmuir Volume Conditions
Table 5.1 Specific Gravity (SG) of HCl Acid 64
Table 6.1 Proppant Comparisons 77
Table 6.2 Standard Sieve Openings 82
Table 8.1 Relative Roughness 113
Table 9.1 Limited-Entry Design Example 131
Table 9.2 Bottom-Hole Pressure (BHP) Versus Sqrt(Time) 136
Example
Table 10.1 Slick Water Schedule Example 152
Table 10.2 Completed Slick Water Schedule Answer 153
Table 10.3 Foam Design Schedule Example 167
Table 13.1 Brittleness and Fracability Ratios Example 214
Table 13.2 True Vertical Depth (TVD), Poisson’s Ratio, and Pore 219
Pressure Gradient
Table 17.1 Reservoir Drive Mechanism Versus b Values 308
Table 17.2 Cumulative and Monthly Production Volumes 318
Example
Table 17.3 Monthly Production Rate Example 322
Table 17.4 Hyperbolic Example Summary 323
Table 18.1 Net Revenue Interest (NRI) Example 330
Table 18.2 Gas, CND, and NGL Production Volumes 337
Table 18.3 Net Opex Example 341
Table 18.4 Net Revenue Example 343
Table 18.5 NYMEX and Basis Forecast Example 345
Table 18.6 NPV Example 359
xix
xx ListofTables
Table 18.7 Net Present Value Summary 360
Table 18.8 Present Value Example Summary 361
Table 18.9 IRR Example 364
Table 18.10 NPVat Various Discount Rates Example 365
Table 18.11 IRR Example 365
Table 18.12 Net Present Value (NPV) Profile 366
Table 18.13 MIRR Example 369
Table 18.14 Payback Period Example 370
Table 18.15 Discounted Payback Period Example Problem 371
Table 18.16 Discounted Payback Period Example Answer 372
Table 18.17 Profitability Index Example Problem 373
Table 18.18 Profitability Index Example Answer 373
Table 18.19 ACR2 7-Year 374
Table 18.20 Taxable Income Example Problem 376
Table 18.21 Taxable Income Example Answer 376
Table 18.22 ATAX Monthly Undiscounted NCF Example 377
Problem
Table 18.23 ATAX Monthly Undiscounted NCF Example Answer 378
Table 18.24 ATAX and BTAX NPV Profile Example 391