Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Fluids Technology

340 Pages·2020·3.791 MB·English

by  Johannes Fink

HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING
CHEMICALS AND
FLUIDS
TECHNOLOGY

HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING
CHEMICALS AND
FLUIDS
TECHNOLOGY
Second edition
JOHANNESFINK
UniversityofLeoben
Leoben,Austria
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Contents
Prefacetothesecondedition xiii
Prefacetothefirstedition xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1. Generalaspects 1
1.1. Functionalcategoriesofhydraulicfracturingchemicals 1
1.2. Stressesandfractures 3
1.2.1. Fractureinitializationpressure 3
1.2.2. Pressuredeclineanalysis 4
1.3. Comparisonofstimulationtechniques 4
1.3.1. Actionofafracturingfluid 4
1.3.2. Stagesinafracturingjob 5
1.4. Simulationmethods 5
1.4.1. Productivity 6
1.4.2. Fracturepropagation 7
1.4.3. Proppants 7
1.4.4. Fluidloss 8
1.4.5. Foamfluid 8
1.4.6. Dischargecontrol 8
1.5. Testing 9
1.5.1. Proppantplacement 9
1.5.2. Slickwaterfracturing 9
1.5.3. Erosion 10
1.5.4. Fluidleakoff 10
1.5.5. Damagedwell 11
1.5.6. Crosslinkedfluids 11
1.5.7. Phasetrapping 12
1.5.8. Waterimbibition 13
1.6. Specialapplications 14
1.6.1. Coiledtubingfracturing 15
1.6.2. Tightgas 16
1.6.3. Shalegas 17
1.6.4. Coalbedmethane 18
1.7. Shalereservoirs 21
1.8. Hydraulicfracturingwithnanoparticles 23
1.8.1. Wellboresealantusingnanoparticles 24
References 24
v
vi Contents
2. Fluidtypes 29
2.1. Comparisonofdifferenttechniques 34
2.2. Expertsystemsforassessment 35
2.3. Oil-basedsystems 35
2.4. Foam-basedfracturingfluids 35
2.4.1. Foamtypes 36
2.4.2. Shalegasfracturingusingafoam-basedfracturingfluid 37
2.4.3. Dryfoams 38
2.5. Utilizationofhydraulicfracturingfluids 39
2.5.1. ChemicaldegradationofPAMduringhydraulicfracturing 39
2.6. Improvedthermalstability 40
2.7. Acidfracturing 41
2.7.1. Encapsulatedacids 42
2.7.2. Insituformationofacids 42
2.7.3. Fluidloss 42
2.7.4. Gelbreakerforacidfracturing 43
2.8. Specialproblems 43
2.8.1. Corrosioninhibitors 43
2.8.2. Ironcontrolinfracturing 43
2.8.3. Enhancedtemperaturestability 45
2.8.4. Chemicalblowing 45
2.8.5. Frost-resistantformulation 46
2.8.6. Formationdamageingaswells 46
2.9. Characterizationoffracturingfluids 47
2.9.1. Rheologiccharacterization 47
2.9.2. Zirconium-basedcrosslinkingagent 48
2.9.3. Oxidativegelbreaker 48
2.9.4. Sizeexclusionchromatography 48
2.9.5. Assessmentofproppants 49
References 49
3. Thickeners 55
3.1. Nanoparticle-enhancedhydraulicfracturingfluids 55
3.2. Thickenersforwater-basedsystems 59
3.2.1. Guar 60
3.2.2. Hydroxyethylcellulose 63
3.2.3. Biotechnologicproducts 64
3.2.4. Viscoelasticformulations 65
3.2.5. Miscellaneouspolymers 67
3.3. Concentrates 68
3.4. Thickenersforoil-basedsystems 70
3.4.1. Organicgelaluminumphosphateester 70
Contents vii
3.4.2. Increasingtheviscosityofdiesel 70
3.5. Viscoelasticity 71
3.5.1. Viscoelasticthickeners 73
3.5.2. Enhancedshearrecoveryagents 74
References 75
4. Frictionreducers 81
4.1. Incompatibility 81
4.2. Polymers 81
4.3. Environmentalaspects 82
4.4. Carbondioxide-foamedfluids 84
4.4.1. Polymeremulsions 84
4.5. Oil-externalcopolymeremulsions 85
4.6. Poly(acrylamide)withweaklabilelinks 86
References 87
5. Fluidlossadditives 89
5.1. Mechanismofactionoffluidlossagents 89
5.1.1. Fluidlossmeasurement 89
5.1.2. Actionofmacroscopicparticles 90
5.2. Additivechemicals 92
5.2.1. Granularstarchandmica 92
5.2.2. Depolymerizedstarch 93
5.2.3. Controlleddegradablefluidlossadditives 93
5.2.4. Succinoglycan 94
5.2.5. Scleroglucan 95
5.2.6. Poly(orthoester)s 95
5.2.7. Poly(hydroxyaceticacid) 96
5.2.8. Polyphenolics 97
5.2.9. Phthalimideasadivertingmaterial 97
5.2.10. Viscoelasticadditives 98
References 100
6. Emulsifiers 105
6.1. Oil-in-wateremulsions 105
6.2. Invertemulsions 106
6.3. Water-in-wateremulsions 106
6.4. Oil-in-water-in-oilemulsions 107
6.5. Microemulsions 107
6.6. Solids-stabilizedemulsion 108
6.7. Biotreatedemulsion 111
References 112
viii Contents
7. Demulsifiers 113
7.1. Basicactionofdemulsifiers 114
7.1.1. Desiredproperties 114
7.1.2. Mechanismsofdemulsification 114
7.2. Chemicals 114
7.3. Chelatingagents 115
References 116
8. Claystabilization 119
8.1. Propertiesofclays 119
8.1.1. Swellingofclays 120
8.1.2. Montmorillonite 123
8.1.3. Guidelines 124
8.2. Mechanismscausinginstability 124
8.2.1. Kineticsofswellingofclays 125
8.2.2. Hydrationalstress 125
8.2.3. Boreholestabilitymodel 125
8.2.4. Shaleinhibitionwithwater-basedmuds 126
8.2.5. Inhibitingreactiveargillaceousformations 126
8.2.6. Formationdamagebyfluids 126
8.3. Swellinginhibitors 126
8.3.1. Salts 127
8.3.2. Quaternaryammoniumsalts 127
8.3.3. Potassiumformate 129
8.3.4. Saccharidederivatives 129
8.3.5. Sulfonatedasphalt 129
8.3.6. Graftedcopolymers 130
8.3.7. Poly(oxyalkyleneamine)s 130
8.3.8. Anionicpolymers 131
8.3.9. Aminesaltsofmaleicimide 132
8.3.10. Guanidylcopolymer 132
8.3.11. Specialclaystabilizers 134
References 135
9. pHcontroladditives 141
9.1. Theoryofbuffers 141
9.2. pHcontrol 144
References 145
10.Surfactants 147
10.1. Performancestudies 147
10.1.1. Multistagehydraulicfracturing 148
10.1.2. Viscoelasticsurfactants 148
Contents ix
10.1.3. Cationicsurfactants 149
10.1.4. Anionicsurfactants 150
10.1.5. Anionicbrominatedsurfactants 153
10.2. Shalecolonizingmicroorganisms 154
10.3. Surfactantsforwaterlesshydraulicfracturing 155
References 155
11.Scaleinhibitors 157
11.1. Classificationandmechanism 157
11.1.1. Thermodynamicinhibitors 159
11.1.2. Kineticinhibitors 160
11.1.3. Adherenceinhibitors 160
11.1.4. Interferenceofchelateformers 160
11.2. Mathematicalmodels 160
11.2.1. Optimaldose 161
11.2.2. Precipitationsqueezemethod 161
11.3. Inhibitorchemicals 162
11.3.1. Water-solubleinhibitors 162
11.3.2. Oil-solublescaleinhibitors 168
11.3.3. Highreservoirtemperatures 170
References 170
12.Foamingagents 175
12.1. Environmentallysafefluids 176
12.2. Liquidcarbondioxidefoams 177
References 178
13.Defoamers 179
13.1. Theoryofdefoaming 179
13.1.1. Stabilityoffoams 179
13.1.2. Actionofdefoamers 180
13.2. Classificationofdefoamers 181
13.2.1. Activeingredients 182
References 184
14.Crosslinkingagents 187
14.1. Kineticsofcrosslinking 187
14.1.1. Delayedcrosslinking 187
14.2. Crosslinkingadditives 187
14.2.1. Boratesystems 187
14.2.2. Titaniumcompounds 189
14.2.3. Zirconiumcompounds 191
14.2.4. Guar 192