Hungary and the fall of Eastern Europe 1000–1568

47 Pages·6.844 MB·English

by  David Nicolle, Angus McBride

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 195
mDmD
MILITARY
HUNGARY AND THE
FALL OF EASTERN
EUROPE 1000-1568
.'
-'.. y.
~.
Publi hed in 1988 by Dedication
Osprey Publishing Ltd For Geza Feheryari who set me on this road.
59 Grosvenor Street, London \V1X 9DA
(('\ Copyright Ig88 O.prey Publishing Ltd Artist's Note
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from which the colour plate in this book were
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
icolle, David
Hungary and the fall ofEa tern Europe
1000-1568.-(Men-at-arms series; 195)'
I. Hungary-Armed Forces-History
2. Hungary-History, Military
3. Hungary-HistorY-1000-1568
1. Titie I!. Series
355'.009439 UA829·H9
Film et in Great Britain
Printed through Bookbuilders Ltd Hong Kong
Hungary andtilefallofEosternEurope
1000-1568
Introduction
Themedieval historyof outh-eastern Europeis not
widely studied in the West. The area i too often
seen simply as a region crossed by Cru ader on
their way to the Holy Land, periodically invaded
by Asiatic hordes, and then suddenly collapsing
before the Ottoman Turks. Yet a glance at an
historical atlas shows the presence ofa vast realm
which endured throughout the Middle Ages-the
Kingdom ofHungary, covering a territory as large
as, and occasionally greater than, France. Then
there was the even more extensive and enduring
ByzantineEmpire. Byzantinehi tory, betterknown
perhapsthan thatofHungaryand thelesserBalkan
state, is often over-simplified. From disastrous
defeatatthehandsoftheSeljukTurk at Manzikert
in 107I to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 i
almost four centuries, during which time an
increasingly Greek Byzantium recovered' was then
virtually obliterated by fellow Christian in the
Fourth Crusade; and recovered once again, to
remain a major regional power until finally being
destroyed by the Serbs and Ottoman Turk. The
Serbians, who are today the dominant nationality
in Yugoslavia, won themselves a briefbutextensive
local empire in the 14th century; while the Hungarian bronze aquamanile, 12th C. This superb wine
dispenserisinthefonnofa huntsDlancarryingakite-shaped
Bulgarians, though never repeating the glories of
shield,ridingwithlongstirrups,andprobablywearinga full
their FirstEmpire (7th-loth centuries), established Inail hauberk. The shape ofhis helInet suggests a directly
rivetedMagyarforIn,whiletheaninJ.albehindhissaddleisa
aneffectiveandculturedstate. Otherplayersonthis clearreferencetoIslaInicIranianart(seeMAA125TheArmies
ofIslam p.IO). Whether such trained hunting cats were ever
confusingBalkan sceneincluded theAlbanians; the
used in Hungaryisdoubtful. (Nat. Mus., Budapest)
Wallachians, Moldavians and Transylvanians,
who today form the Romanian nation; the
Chronology
Croatians and other members of the modern
Yugoslav federation; plu various nomad peoples.
from theEurasiansteppes-notto mentionassorted
western Europeans from Italy, Spain and else 1000 Accession ofKing Stephan; Hungary
where, allofwhomfaced theOttomanTurksatone officially becomes Christian.
timeoranother. Howdid theyorgani etheirarmies 1018 Fall ofFirst Bulgarian Empire.
and fight their wars; and why did they ultimately 1071 Battle ofManzikert: defeat ofByzan
fail? tium followed by loss ofAnatolia.
3
1081 Alexius I Emperor of Byzantium, Palaeologues retake Constantinople
starts Comnenid dynasty. from 'Latin Empire'.
First Crusade traverses Hungary & 13°7 Beginning of Angevin dynasty in
Byzantium. Hungary.
1102 Unification ofHungary & Croatia. 133° Battle of Kustendil: Serbia defeats
116g Unification & foundation of erbian Bulgaria. BattleofPosada: Wallachia
state. win independence from Hungary.
Battle of Myriocephalon: defeat of 134:>52 erbia conquer most of Byzantine
Byzantium by Seljuks ofRum. Greece.
Massacre of Westerners in Byzan 1354 Ottoman capture fir t territory in
tium; fall of Comnenids & tart of Europe.
Angelid dynasty. 1359 Traditional date of descalecat: inde
1186 Vlach-Bulgar revolt & foundation of pendenceofMoldaviafrom Hungary.
Second Bulgarian Empire. 1371 Battle of Cirmen: Balkan coalition
12°4 Fourth Crusade capture Con defeated by Ottomans; beginning of
stantinople; foundation of'Latin Em fragmentation ofBulgaria.
pire'. FirstbattleofKossovo: mostofSerbia
1206 Re-establishment of Byzantine 'Em accepts Ottoman suzerainty.
pire' under Laskarids at Nicea. Battle of icopolis: Crusaders &
1237 Mongols attack Cumans in kraine, Hungarian defeated by Ottomans.
some Cumans flee into Hungary. Wallachia accepts Ottoman suze
Mongols invade Hungary. rainty.
Michael Palaeologus crowned co 1444 BattleofVarna: Hungariansdefeated
ruler with Laskarid Emperor at by Ottomans.
icea. (Palaeologues ole Imperial Ottomans capture Constantinople.
dynasty from 1261.) Defence of Belgrave: Hungarian
L.VanousLatins
H.Haspltalers
~Byzantines
4
1.
2 ilm
36
1_
E
2 IlIIIII
3 ~
4 ~
A = FortifiedSlovakiancityofNitra,11thC(afterMenel):1 StephantheGreat(1stphase);J-wallofStephan(2ndphase),
Bishop's Palace; 2--Upper City; J-Suburb. B = fortified showing increased threat froID gunpowder artillery; 4
bishop's palace ofMaglic showing western in.Buence, early collapseddefences. Fa = sectionthroughtower, early15thC
14th C Bosnia (after Pribakovic). C = Hunedoara Castle, fortified lDonastery of Resava (Manasija), Serbia (after
Transylvania: I-14th C;2--additionsbyJanos Hunyadi;J Nenadovic). Fb = early 15thC fortified lDonasteryofResava
late15thC& later.D = CetatiiArgescastle,Wallachia,14thC. (Manasija) built in Byzantine-early OttolDan lDanner with
E = Scaun Citadel, Suceava, Moldavia; I-Byzantine style high wallsand rectangulartowers, Serbia(afterMilan).
castle of Princes Peter & Alexander 1375 1432; 2--wall of
defeat Ottoman. selves, or Magyars, were probably a minority
Stephan the Great of Moldayia inhabiting the central plains while thesurrounding
throw offOttoman uzerainty. mountain were inhabited by Slavs and Vlachs.
Moldavia again accept Ottoman Even the origins of the Magyars are shrouded in
suzerainty. mystery.
Battle ofMohac : Hungary defeated Contemporary chroniclers regarded the Mag
by Ottomans. yars who conquered the area in the late 9th
Croatia accepts Au trian-Hap burg century as Turks; but by the IIth century they
rule. were clearly speaking a Finno- grian tongue-
Transylvania separate under Otto Hungarian. A recent theorysuggests two conquests
man uzerainty. in which a Finno-Ugrian people accompanied an
Treaty of Adrianople: Ottomans & earlier invasion by Turkic Onogurs (related to the
Hap burgs agree partition of Hun Bulgar and Huns) after the powerful Avar state
gary. had been destroyed by Charlemagne. The Turkic
Magyars who then arrived at the end of the 9th
century became a small ruling elite who soon
Hungary
adopted the languageofthe ettled Finno-Ugrians.
Whether or not this theory is correct, the
conquering Magyars at first had strong cultural
Out ofthe shadows linkswithIranand Turkestan, these beingreflected
The medieval Kingdom ofHungary had much in inarms, armourandstyle ofcombat.Thenomadic
common with an empire. The Hungarian them- tribal structure of the Magyars quickly disap-
5
the Magyar tate, whereas mostother kingdoms of
nomad origin imply withered away.
In the year 100 on Christmas Day, according
tolegend-Stephanwascrownedas thefir tkingof
Hungary (previous rulers having been mere
prince) while the country officially became
Christian. UnderStephan's rule Hungarydefeated
two German invasions, helped Byzantium extin
guish the Fir t Bulgarian Empire and extended its
border to the Carpathian Mountains. Expansion
to thewesthad,ofcourse beenblockedatthebattle
of Lechfeld. Feudali ation gathered momentum;
but throughout the 11th century the Magyars
remained a warlike, and in some cases nomadic
peoplewhile thefew towns wereinhabited bySlavs
and Germansettlers. Therewas also a steadymove
towards we tern European equipment, but not, as
yet, tactics. This was, however, more noticeable in
theSlavnorth-west-whereHungaryfaced threats
from Germany, Bohemia and Poland-than else
where. on-Magyars provided KingStephan with
hi admini tration, but the army which defeated a
German inva ion of 1030 was completely Hun
garian. Thi and a further invasion in 1052 were
both halted by corched earth' tactics and
harassment by cavalry particularly at night.
Hungary alo had to face invasion from the
A = wheel-lockfrom north-westHungary,c.I540(Nat. Mus. ea tern teppe byPecenegnomadsfollowingin the
mv.S.I,6,Budapest).B= matchlockfromTransylvania,early
footstep ofthe Magyars themselve . However, the
15thC(BrukenthalMus.,Sibiu).C = bronzehandgun,15thC
(Nat. Mus., Budapest). D = breech-loading iron cannon balance ofpower between nomad and settled tate
(breechchambermissing),late15th arly16thC(Milit.Mus.
mv. 129/135,Budapest). E = reconstructionofhandgunfrom had now shifted and Hungary was able to defeat
Smederova showing wooden grip, 15th C (Milit. Mus.,
the e invader. They were not driven out or
Belgrade). F = section ofhandgun from Smederova, 15th C
(Milit. Mus. mv. II 65/1, Belgrade). G = bronze cannon of exterminated: in tead, Hungarian monarch adop
possibleSerbianorigin,late14thC(KaraJnanMus.,Turkey).
H = ironbombard,late14th-15thC (Milit. Mus.,Budapest). ted Byzantium's policy ofsettling Turkish nomads
I = iron bombard from Kupres, 1380-1400 (Nat. Mus., in various frontier or ensitive regions where they
Sarajevo).J= bronzebombardfromGiurgiuisland,probably
Hungarianlate 14thC (Cent. Milit. Mus., Bucharest). becameeffective troopspersonallyloyalto theking.
The Peceneg retained a separate identity for two
hundred years. Later in the IIth century Kipchak
peared, aggressive warfare into western Europe or Cuman tribes imilarly invaded, and were
soon being the preserve ofan aristocratic elite (see imilarly ettled.
MAA 150, The AgeofCharlemagne).Meanwhile, the While ucce sfully resi ting invasion, Hungary.
indigenous Slavs and Finno-Ugrians retained a alsogrewbytakingovertheKingdomofCroatia,or
militaryrolein mountainous regions, whileexi ting at least incorporating it on term ofnear equality.
fortressesweresimplytakenoverbytheconquerors. Thi gave Hungary an Adriatic coastline and
The cata trophic defeat at Lechfeld in 955 almo tinevitablyled toconflictwithVenice.Bo nia
paradoxically helped the Hungarian ruler by was conquered, and the turbulent First Cru ade
wiping out much of the turbulent aristocracy, so wa helped on its way without too much damage.
helping him impose greater central authority. The Western a well as Russian mercenaries had been
ruler's success probably guaranteed the survival of recruited even before Stephan s reign but now
6
others, Germansand Italians, arrived in theretinue
U
oftheking'sBavarianwife. Known a hospiles,many E
D
became part of a new feudal aristocracy. By the
early 13th century nine of the total 26 leading
Hungarianfamilieswereofforeignorigin. The bulk
of Hungarian warriors nevertheless remained
unlike theforces ofwestern Europe until atleast the
mid-12th century. In 1147 Otto of Freising
described their'ugly' weapons and their 'terrifying'
appearance. Manystill fought as light cavalrywith
sabre, spear, bow, andsoftarmouroffeltorleather,
and used the harassment tactics of the steppes.
Horse-breedingremained themain occupation and
much of the population remained semi-nomadic,
living in waggons which could serve as field
fortifications. The I Ith century also saw the last
pagan uprisings against Westernisation and feud
alism, while a series of earth and wood castles
sprang up across the country. Serving as adminis
trative and defensive centres, they were garrisoned
by non-aristocratic freemen calledjobbdgy.
The 13th century
Not until the early 13th century were Hungarian
military traditionsfully We terni ed, and even then
military obligation remained a personal matter
G
between a man and his lord, not being so tied to
land-holding as in the West. The 12th century also -
L
saw a significant, though temporary, change in
Hungary's relations with Byzantium. Allies until
the mid-12th century, they now clashed over the
Emperor Manuel's efforts to rebuild Byzantine
powerin theBalkans. AfterByzantium'scollapseat
the end of that century the two states once more
became allies, remaining so until the fall of
M
Byzantium in the 15th century. or were
Hungary'ssights setsolely on the south. Part ofthe
Russian Principality of Galich was temporarily
conquered by a Hungarianfeudal elite, itselfunder
increasing French cultural and military influence.
Hungarian,weapons:A = 11thCsabre(Nat.Mus.,Buclapt>sl).
B = 12th-13th C ClUIlan sabre (Milit. Mus., Budapest). C
14th-15th C sabre (Nat. Mus., Budapest). D = sabre with
Sciavonahilt,late15thC (Nat.Mus.,Budapest).E-F = 16thC
sabres (Milit. Mus., Budapest). G = single edged sword,
Slovakiaearly11thC (Nat.Mus.,Budapest). H = 11th-12thC
sword(Nat.Mus.,Budapest).J= 13th-14thC sword,Slovakia
(GelllerMus.,RiInavskaSobota).J = CroatianswordofBan
(governor)ofLendava,14thC(Mus.ofCroatianHist.,Zagreb).
K = 15thCsword(Nat.Mus.,Budapest).L-M= kesekdaggers,
15th C (location unknown). N = 15th-16th C cstikany war
hallllller(Nat.Mus.,Budapest).0 = inlaidSlovakianwar-axe,
14thC?frolll ZernianskePodhradce (Nat. Mus., Martin).
7
Meanwhile there were many other military Archery declined while the crossbow rose in
influences at work. Balkan Slav mercenaries and importance, most crossbowmen being recruited
vassal troops were recruited throughout the J2th from Slav areas such as Slovakia. The raising of
century, and evensomeByzantine troops mayhave cattle gradually replaced the breeding of horses
arrived in the mid-J3th century. The king's army, while light cavalry, though not disappearing, were
built around the Royal Household, became now little more than auxiliaries. A Byzantine
increasingly professional, with little role leftfor the description ofa Hungarian army shows just how
free peasantjobbagy. Even thecastlesystemdeclined Westernised they had become: '... as he [the
along with the military obligations of the feudal Hungariancommander] wasfull ofconceit,instead
aristocracy. ofdividing his army into a right and left wing with
columns and quads he concentrated all his forces
into a single mass ... His flag was fluttering in the
windon topofa high thickpoleplacedonaxlesand
drawn byfouryokesofoxen. Itwasreally terrifying
tosee his army consistingentirelyofcavalry armed
with spears. Notonly were the warriors covered by
armour to the teeth but their horses also had straps
and platesofarmourontheirforehead and breast...'
Thetournamentwasintroducedearlyinthe 13th
century as French and German military influence
grew ever stronger. Hungary still strove to expand
by briefly conquering Serbia, campaigningagainst
~he Bogomil heretics of Bosnia, competing with
Venice in Dalmatia, and again trying to seize
control of Russian Galich. This put enormous
strains on the nation's military potential at a time
when unforeseen catastrophe was approaching
from Asia.
In 1237 the Mongols attacked the Kipchak
Turkstotheeast. Manyofthedefeatednomadsfled
into Hungary, where the king again tried to settle
them as potent allies again t both external
aggression and baronial dissent. Unfortunately the
newcomers, many of whom were Muslims, were
numerous, and the barons realised uneasily that
their presence gave great power to the crown. The
Balkanweapons: A = daggerwithbonegrip, 1130-1230from
Ras castle,Serbia(Milit.Mus.,Belgrade). B = 13thC sword,
probably GerDlan, from Buzau, Wallachia (Slatineanu Coll.,
Bucharest).C = 12th-13thCsword-chapefromMoldavia(ex
Spinel). D = sword, probably Ger=anc.14°Ofrom Curteade
Arges (Slatineanu Coll., Bucharest). E = 12th-13th C sabre
blade from Moldavia (ex-Spinel). F = outline of12th 13th C
Bulgarian Dlail shirtfrom Mikhailovo, lowerhem daDlaged
(Local Museum, inv. 643,Kazanlik). G = winged Dlace-head
fromSerbia,possibly15th-16thC(Milit.Mus.,Belgrade).H =
'SwordofFoca',15thCBosnian(Nat.Mus.,Sarajevo).I = 16th
C ceremonial halbard (inlaid decoration not shown) from
Bukovina(LocalMus.,Suceava).J-L = Dlace-headsfromStara
Zagoraregion, 13th-14thCBulgarian(LocalMus.,Kazanlik).
M = undatedbronzeDlace-headfromBukovina,Moldavia(ex
Spinel). N = 10th-12thCaxe-headfromFedesti,Moldavia(ex
Spinei). 0 = 13th C axe-head from Cozanesti, Mold~via(ex
Spinel).P = 16thCaxe-headfroDlCalugareni,Wallachia(Cent.
Milit. Mus., Bucharest).
8
Cumanleaderwas murdered, and hi followers fled Hungarian&Balkan seals: A = IstvanErdeIyi,lordofPees,
Dlid-14thC(BudapestHistoricalMus.);B= KingStephenVof
south into the plains of Wallachia ju t when the
Hungary, 127~2(BudapestHistoricalMus.);late14th-early
Mongols were poised to strike. It eemed that only 15thCBosnianseal(SarajevoMus.);DespotStefanLazarevie
ofSerbia,c.141o(Monastery Archive, Manasija).
the king realised the danger. He tried hard to
bol ter the country's defence, but all in vain: the brotherhood between the king and his leading
Hungarian army was virtually annihilated at the barons was strengthened by the creation ofa new
battle ofMohi in 1242. The king escaped, and for orderofchivalry, the OrderofSt. George. Beneath
various reasons the Mongols ravaged but did not the baron were counts or ispans, followed by the
remain. Moreimportantly, theydid not return-at castellans ofthe king's own castles.
least not in strength-and 0 Hungary wa quickly Louis the Great, who succeeded Charles Robert
able to recover. in 1342, also recruited German and Italian
In the decades that followed the power of the mercenarie to be used against Venetian expansion
Hungarian monarchy faded while that of the inDalmatia,paganLithuaniansandCatholicPoles
aristocracy grew. 0 did thesize ofbaronial armies in the north and Orthodox Serbs to the south.
consistingofknightlyretainerscaliedfamiLiares.The Louis al 0 supported the Pope in Italy, and
greatbaronswere now buildingItalian-stylecastles projected himselfas the champion ofthe Church;
of stone around their estates or provinciae. Cities but his dreams ofleading a great Crusade against
grew; foreigners, includingmany German, ettled; the Turks were frustrated by chronic divisions
and an iron industry developed. The Cumans also within the Christian camp. Instead, Louis' suc
returned,KingLadislasI evenmarryinga nomad ce orshad toface thefull mightoftheOttoman in
and surrounding himselfwith Mu lim and]ewi h a truggle which brutally highlighted thefailings of
advisers. the bandiera system. As the Ottomans advanced
deep into theBalkans, KingSigismund ofHungary
The Angevin Kings calleda Crusade;buttheill-disciplined (andlargely
With the death ofAndrew III in 1301 the Arpad French) host which answered his call met total
dynasty came to an end. It had led Hungary since disaster at the battle of icopolis in 1396, though
the days of the Conquest but now, after a brief Sigismund himselfescaped.
struggle, a member of the Italo-French ngevin .TheHungarian armyofthis period was a mixed
family-which already ruled outhern Italy and force and did not depend solely on the bandiera.
parts of Greec became king of Hungary. For Tribesmen of Cuman, and more recent Alan
Hungary the acce sion ofCharlesRobert I marked refugeeoriginplayedavitalrole whilelightcavalry
thestartofa brilliant age. The powerofthe baron were till recruited from the stock-raising pop
wascurbed'FrenchGothicand ItalianRenai sance ulation ofthe plains. A militiaofhonvedscould only
culture spread across the country, as did modern beusedforlocaldefence, butSigismundrevived the
military ideas. Under Charles Robert and the military obligations ofordinary people through a
AngevinsHungarian baronial armie were brought new militiaportalis in which a certain proportion of
under closer royal control. ow known as the the population had to serve. The king himselfwas
bandiera (from the Italian for flag) they were now little more than leaderofa league ofbarons, a
recruited from the peasantry, while a en eofnoble ituation recognised in 1409 by the creation ofthe
9
E
Knights was encouraged to fortify the eastern Hungarianhehnets:A = Peceneghelmet,perhapshasicallyof
Byzantine origin with nOlnad decoration, 11th-12th C (Deri
frontier against nomad encroachment but the Mus.Nerniyano.2,Debrecen);B = loth-11thCMagyarhehnet
knights pressed on eastward across the mountains of directly riveted segments decorated with copper filets
(Archaeol. Mus., Pecs); C = Curnanhehnet in Inixed steppe
and threatened to create their own 'state-within-a and Iranian style, 13th C (Nat. Mus., Budapest); D = 14thC
bascinet with klappvisier, probably of German origin c.1380
state'. This so worried the Hungarian king that he
(Nat.Mus., Budapest); E = hehnet in Turkish style, Mohacs
drove them out in 1225. period early 15thC (Nat. Mus., Budapest).
The indigenous inhabitants of the Carpathians
spoke a language descended from Latin. Generally Hungarian in culture, while Hunyadi himselfrose
known as Vlachs, they were the ancestors of the to power and wealth through his military genius
modern Romanians (see below). Most were and loyalty to the crown. Other families, however,
Orthodox Christians, although some living in refused to adoptnewwaysand had migrated across
Hungarian territory became Catholic. A Vlach the mountains into Moldavia and Wallachia.
aristocracy had recently developed out of the old Catholic pressure on the Orthodox, and on newly
tribal system, but in Transylvania its status was arrived Hussite refugees from Bohemia, grew
steadily eroded under Magyar and' Catholic stronger in the 15th century; but this did not
pressure. Nevertheless, a warlike Romanian elite prevent Hussites from providing Hunyadi Janos
led by regional voivodes and knyazates still existed with some of his most effective troops. Having
around Maramures and other parts of eastern learned his military trade as a young condottiere in
Transylvania, defending these regions against Italy, Hunyadi used his own wealth to raise an
nomad infiltration well into the 14th century. efficient fighting force to face the Ottomans.
In addition to Hussite mercenaries and his
Hunyadi and Matthias personal followers, vassals andfamiliares, Hunyadi
The great Hunyadi Janos came from such a could also summon the peasant militia. Though he
background. His father had become Catholic and wasoftendefeated when taking the offensive--asat
I I