Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine

222 Pages·2016·42.19 MB·English

by  Kramer, Cole, Laurence A., Peter R

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY
AND BASIC MEDICINE
HUMAN
PHYSIOLOGY,
BIOCHEMISTRY
AND BASIC
MEDICINE
LAURENCE A. COLE
PETER R. KRAMER
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
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Preface
How this book was conceived and came In 2014, Laurence kept writing, preparing the
about is inmany respects a book unto itself. Lau- second edition of the monograph “Human Cho-
rence Cole, PhD, an author, was a professor of rionic Gonadotropin (hCG),” Elsevier Insight,
obstetrics and gynecology at University of ISBN 978-0-12-384907-6. Next, Laurence pre-
New Mexico and an affiliate and associate pro- pared talks on human biology for presentation
fessor at Yale University. He was a scientist at Texas high schools, which is when he consid-
and a medical student reproductive biology ered writing a high school human biology text-
teacher. He was chief of the division of women’s book. He proposed this book to Nova Science
health research. Publishers. They responded with a solid No!,
Dr. Cole started the USA hCG Reference Ser- saying they do not publish high school text-
vice, a small business run from his new home in books. Laurence then proposed the same high
Angel Fire, in the mountains of New Mexico. school science book to Elsevier. Elsevier also
The USA hCG Reference Service ran blood and said No!, saying they only publish university
urine laboratory tests and consulted with phy- undergraduate and graduate school books, but
sicians worldwide in cases of gestational tropho- instead suggested an undergraduate and gradu-
blastic disease and cases of women not-pregnant ate student book on human biology.
positive in hCG gestational tests. The USA hCG Angel Fire is located at 8400 ft altitude. In
Reference Service only occupied Laurence’s the summer, the temperature rarely exceeds
time for just 1 day in each 14 days. 75 degrees. However, the sun is different at
Laurence could not stand all the free time he 8400 ft altitude. The solar rays or infra-red heat
had, since, in essence for 13 of 14 days, he was is very much more intense in Angel Fire, such
doing nothing, other than just standing and star- that 75 degrees feels on the skin like 90-100
ing at the incredible mountains surrounding degrees. I had sat outside in the sun at our
Angel Fire. Laurence was so used to thinking house for 1 h and my forehead felt like it was
about reproductive science and dreaming repro- on fire. I then went inside to get away from
ductive science that he sat by the computer and the sun and sat alone on the sofa. That is when
started writing. In 2012 and 2013, Laurence I suddenly came up with the book title huma-
wrote a comprehensive physiology and medi- nology, a book that combined all aspects of
cine textbook on human reproduction for medi- physiology with biochemistry and anatomy,
cal students entitled “The Biology and Medical or a book that looks at every conceivable aspect
Dynamics of Human Reproduction” Nova Sci- of what makes a human. I was sold. I wrote to
ence Publishers 2014, ISBN 978-1-62948-832-5. Elsevier proposing the book “Humanology,” a
In 2013, Laurence wrote other medical books, comprehensive book covering all -ologies of
including “The Glycopeptins,” Nova Science humans. A new book for undergraduate stu-
Publishers, 2014 ISBN 978-1-63321-833-8. dents at university.
ix
x PREFACE
What is humanology? What does the word remember that Christmas when Peter and I,
mean? I was able to find three dictionaries that who both drove very old Volkswagen Beetles
listed the word humanology. What was found, at that time, said that we will meet for lunch
however, what a mishmash of definitions with down at the tavern on Wisconsin Avenue. Wis-
different biological and psychological meanings. consin Avenue inWauwatosa is very hill-ridden
The Merriam Webster Dictionary, http:// with dozens of ups and downs. There was at
nws.merriam-webster.com. least a foot of fresh snow on the ground and
Humanology (noun): the balance between the no traffic. Stephen left the medical complex
wealth mindset and the spiritual self. The sci- and went over the first hill on a car-deserted
ence that deals with human aspects for better- Wisconsin Ave and unwittingly his car rotated
ment of relationships and self-confidence. The around six or seven times coming over the brim
process and use of the mental, emotional, phys- of the first hill, skiing in every direction.
ical and spiritual states of a human being. I followed him, lost all control, and did the
The Syntheory Dictionary, http://www. same thing coming over the hill spinning around
syntheory.com/refs/glossary.html. and around. My spinning car slapped side into
Humanology—the current author defines side into Peter’s car as I came down the hill. I
humanology as the scientific study of humanity. remember the front door of Peter’s car falling
It draws upon all of the existing theories of off, tumbling flat into the snow, then a few
psychology as well as all of the known arts minutes later the back door falling off. Then
and spiritualities. 10 min later, his front wheel dropped 90 degrees,
The Wikipedia Encyclopedia, http:// and finally his back wheel falled flat 90 degrees.
philosophyofreason.wikispaces.com. All I could do is laugh. All we all could do is
Humanology is the study of human beings. It laugh and laugh as we walked into the tavern
is a neologism used within POR to identify the for lunch. Peter’s old beetle had had it.
difficulty of using science to study human I remember that after lunch and drinking a
beings. Humanology consists of all serious couple of beers, coming outside and looking at
attempts to apply scientific reasoning to Homo the cars, all we could do is laugh more looking
sapiens. By definition, humanology includes at Peter’s door-less andwheel-less dead skeleton
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and all car. We ordered taxis to take us home. This story
similar academic specialties. here is one of unraveling a car, yet here we write
I start this book with one simple definition on a book on unraveling humans piece by piece.
humanology: Humanology is one science Stephen seemingly traced Laurence all across
describing the actions, all physiological and bio- the United States. Laurence Cole first moved
chemical behaviors, and an introduction tomed- east to University of Michigan in Ann Arbor,
ical behavior of humans. It is the science of Michigan. Stephen moved east to Notre Dame
everything human. University in Notre Dame, Indiana. Laurence
I soon started to realize that I needed partners moved further east to Yale University in Con-
for writing this book, my co-authors or partner necticut, and Stephen moved east shortly after-
authors. Partners with expertise in biochemis- ward to University of Connecticut. We always
try, human physiology, and human psychology. kept in touch, worked together, and hiked
I thought about Peter Kramer, PhD, a nutritional together on weekends. Now Stephen lives in
biochemist. Laurence Cole and Peter Kramer the Philippines where he co-authors this book
both studied together on their biochemistry by e-mail with me.
PhDs at Medical College of Wisconsin in This comprehensive text is designed to give
Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1978-1982. I always the undergraduate student a thorough
PREFACE xi
understanding of the workings of a human (Section 4: Human Evolution and Pseudo-
being, encompassing the workings of the brain evolution). It looks at howhumans evolved from
and mind, the workings of the organs or body, primates, how Homo sapiens first appeared,
the underlying biochemistry, and a broad intro- including details about early life and how it
duction to medicine. Such knowledge is essen- slowly became civilized. Section 5 deals with
tial to a career in the medical field. human nutrition, diet, and fitness and obesity
The book starts by looking at the bodily units (Section 5: Nutrition).
(Section 1: Human Body Formed by Units). Here Section 6 is an introduction to basic human
we examine the underlying cells and inspect the medicine (Section 6: Human Diseases and Treat-
biochemistry at the roots of the functioning of ments). This section selects multiple categories
the human body. We also investigate the under- of disease, genetic defects, infection, cancer, car-
lying DNA and genetics of the human body and diovascular disease, hydatidiform mole, diabe-
how it all works. tes, and ovarian cysts. It tries to introduce each
The book then examines the anatomy and disease category, examine its underlying physi-
biology of the human frame (Section 2: Human ology and biochemistry, and explain the basic
Frame). First, by examining the human skeleton, mechanisms of disease.
then inspecting the skin, ligaments, andmuscles It is believed that a comprehensive under-
of the human body. Third, this section examines standing of all six sections of this book will pro-
apoptosis and the underlying mechanism by vide students with complete knowledge of the
which we grow and age. The third section is a workings of human beings, or an appropriate
comprehensive examination of human physiol- introduction with the vast science of
ogy (Section 3: Human Organs), looking at sys- humanology.
tem by system how the body functions and
what different organs look after. Laurence A. Cole, PhD
The fourth section of the book examines in Peter R. Kramer, PhD
detail how humans evolved or came about
C H A P T E R
1.1
The Cell
The cell is the unit of all animal andplant, pro- village or fraction of a speck of dust work hap-
karyotic and eukaryotic, life. There is single cell pily and eagerly together.
life like theamoeba, oligocell life like someplank- Figure 1.1.1 shows a representative human
ton, andmulticell life likehumans.Humansactu- cell. While there are thousands of types or clas-
ally contain 3.01013 cells or 30 trillion cells. If ses of cells in humans, each is different in shape,
you imagine that anaverage speckofdustweighs makeup, and function. A very general cell is
just 0.75 μg, then the average 70 Kg man com- shown in Figure 1.1.1. The number of each
prises the weight of 93 billion particles of dust. organelle varies in each cell type, and some cell
Considering both values, the average cell in the types contain specialized functional organelles,
human body weighs just a tiny fraction of the which are not shown. Each cell is centered by
mass of a speck of dust, 1/323 of a speck of dust. a nucleus and within each cell is a nucleolus.
The cell is the basic humanmakeuporunit, a tiny Each cell has a smooth and rough endoplasmic
fraction of a speck of dust. reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mito-
This miniscule body, a fraction of the size of a chondria, lysosomes, centrioles, and microtu-
speck of dust, is an entire village full of organ- bules. Shown are secretory vesicles emerging
elles or shops and business facilities. There is from the Golgi apparatus as a representative cell
the mitochondrion, which is like the village (Figure 1.1.1).
power station, the nucleus, where the village
mayor controls the village council or chromo-
somes and orders what is to be made and when, THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
the rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribo-
somes, which are like the local village factory, The plasma membrane is the envelope that
hard at work manufacturing the village’s need encloses the entire cell. The envelope is made
for proteins, and the Golgi apparatus, another up of molecules called phospholipids. These
village factory, hard at work refining the synthe- are fatty acids with a charged or polar group
sized proteins. Then there is the lysosomes or on the head, and two long noncharged fatty tails
local village dump degrading the molecules comprising carbon and hydrogen atoms. Many
not needed by the cells. All buildings in the different lengths of fatty acid tails, saturated
Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine 3 # 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803699-0.00001-3
4 1.1. THE CELL
FIGURE 1.1.1 Representative animal cell and its
FIGURE 1.1.2 The structure of phospholipids.
organelles.
and unsaturated carbon, and hydrogen atoms membrane, and most other molecules from
are found in phospholipids in different cell crossing into the cell, except lipids or fats that
plasma membranes. One possible phospholipid merge with the plasma membrane lipid bilayers
with two stearic acid-derived fatty tails is shown and cross the bilayer. Cells can export proteins
in Figure 1.1.2. across the lipid bilayer in secretory vesicles. Ves-
The phospholipids come together to form a icles merge with the membrane after transport-
bilayer, with the charged phospho groups on ing proteins out of the membrane boundaries
the extreme inside and outside of the membrane (see Figure 1.1.1).
and the hydrophobic or noncharged fatty tails
in the middle of the bilayer membrane. An
example of a possible membrane is shown in NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS
Figure 1.1.3. The membrane is spanned by
receptor proteins that bind a hormone or auto- The nucleolus is the most prominent struc-
crine on the outside of the cell, and then transmit ture within the nucleus. It is the site of ribosomal
a protein signal to the inside of the cell. The RNA transcription and processing and ribosome
bilayer is also crossed by channel protein, assembly, or the creation of ribosomal protein
another type of protein that lets specific mole- synthesis centers. Actively growing human cells
+
cules, such as ions like Na enter, into the cell contain 5-10 million ribosomes that must be
(Figure 1.1.3). The charged lipid bilayer blocks copied each time the cell divides into two. The
proteins, except proteins built into the plasma nucleolar organizer regions of chromosomes,
1. HUMAN BODY FORMED BY UNITS
NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS 5
FIGURE 1.1.3 The lipid bilayer structure of plasma membranes.
which contain the genes for ribosomal ribo- chromosomes or in 46 total. The nucleus is the
nucleic acid (rRNA), serve as the substance site where DNA is replicated, and DNA is
for nucleolar structure. Ribosomal assembly in transcribed to make messenger RNA (mRNA)
the nucleolus begins with the transcription signals to start the process of translation or pro-
of pre-rRNA. During transcription, ribosomal tein synthesis which occurs in ribosomes in the
and nonribosomal proteins attach to the RNA. cell cytoplasm (all the cell body except the
There is modification and cleavage of pre-rRNA nucleus).
and incorporation of more ribosomal proteins The function of the nucleus is to maintain
and 5S rRNA into maturing preribosomal the integrity of the genes on chromosomes and
complexes. to control the activities of the cell by regulating
As shown in Figure 1.1.4, the nucleus is a ball gene expression through mRNA signals. The
filled with chromatin, a DNA-protein complex, nucleus is the control center of the cell. Because
with the nucleolus, and multiple loose chromo- the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large
somes. Each human cell contains 23 pairs of molecules, nuclear pores are required that regu-
late nuclear transport of molecules across the
envelope. The pores cross both nuclear membra-
nes, providing a channel through which larger
molecules must be actively transported by car-
rier proteins while allowing free movement of
small molecules and ions into the nucleus.
Movement of large molecules like proteins and
mRNA through pores is needed for gene expres-
sion and the maintenance of chromosomes.
The nuclear envelope contains thousands of
nuclear pores (Figure 1.1.4). Nuclear pores are
large protein complexes that cross the nuclear
envelope, which is the double membrane
surrounding the cell nucleus. The proteins
that make up the nuclear pore complex are
known as nucleoporins. Each nuclear pore
complex is composed of approximately 30 dis-
FIGURE 1.1.4 The nucleus and nucleolus. tinct proteins.
1. HUMAN BODY FORMED BY UNITS