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How to Do Research: And How to Be a Researcher PDF

273 Pages·2022·6.428 MB·English
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HowtoDoResearch How to Do Research AndHowtoBeaResearcher Robert Stewart ProfessorofPsychiatricEpidemiology&ClinicalInformatics, King’sCollegeLondon GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries ©RobertStewart2022 Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted Impression:1 Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Dataavailable LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2022943702 ISBN978–0–19–286865–7 DOI:10.1093/oso/9780192868657.001.0001 Printedandboundby CPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythird-partywebsitereferencedinthiswork. Withthankstomyacademiclinemanagersovertheyears (Anthony,Martin,Graham,Matthew)andtoeveryoneIhaveworked withandsupervised,forteachingmemostofwhatIknow. WiththankstoTrevorforkickingthetyres. AndwithgratitudebeyondexpressiontoAnge,Tom, andLuceforputtingupwithallofthis. Contents ImageCreditLines viii 1. Introduction 1 2. OriginStories 13 3. GodorClockwork?TheImportanceofIgnorance 24 4. CarefulObservation 36 5. IdeasunderPressure 48 6. ChoosingaSolution 61 7. TheIdealandtheReality 75 8. Consensus 88 9. Designing Research: From Description toTheory-Building 101 10. DesigningResearch:Experiments 114 11. DesigningResearch:AlternativestoExperiments 128 12. DesigningResearch:R&D 142 13. Communication1:GettingPublished 158 14. Communication2:GettingKnown 177 15. Money 196 16. PowerandPolitics 216 17. HowtobeaResearcher:SomeConclusions 236 Bibliography 253 Index 254 Image Credit Lines 1.1. AutotypeofJohnSnow(1856;published1887).ThomasJonesBarker, Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 8 1.2. FromSnowJ.,OntheModeofCommunicationofCholera,CFCheffins (Lith.),SouthamptonBuildings,London(1854).Publicdomainvia WikimediaCommons.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snow-cholera- map-1.jpg 9 1.3. TheSilentHighwayman(1858);Original:CartoonfromPunchMagazine 35:137;10July1858Thiscopy:CityandWaterBlog.PublicDomain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4465060 11 2.1. Source:John,L.(ed)(1999).TheOxfordhistoryofIslam.OxfordUniversity Press,Oxford.Al-Khwarizmi,Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 19 2.2. StatueofZuChongzhi.中文(简体):祖冲之铜像。(2016).Attibution: 三猎,CCBY-SA4.0.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0,via WikimediaCommons. 20 2.3. MortdelaPhilosophieHypatie.FromFiguier,L.(1872).Viesdessavants illustres,depuisl’antiquitéjusqu’audix-neuvièmesiècle.Hachette,Paris. PublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons.https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg 21 3.1. ContemporaryphotographofJamesFrazer,1933.http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/art/10799/Sir-James-George-Frazer- 1933#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked,PublicDomain,https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4250992 25 3.2. GustaveDoré.(1892).CantoXXXIinH.Francis(ed),TheDivine Comedy by Dante, Illustrated, Complete. Cassell & Company, London/Paris/Melbourne.PublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Paradiso_ Canto_31.jpg 28 3.3. DmitrijMendeleyev’sPeriodicTable(1869).Originaluploader:Den fjättradeankanatSwedishWikipedia,Publicdomain,viaWikimedia Commons. 34 4.1. FrancisBaconbyPaulvanSomerI(1617).pl.pinterest.com,Public Domain,https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19958108 37 4.2. MariaSibyllaMerianbyJacobusHoubraken/GeorgGsell(c.1700). PublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Merian_Portrait.jpg 40 4.3. RobertHooke.Schem.XXXV–OfaLouse.Diagramofalouse.In Hooke,R.(1665).Micrographiaorsomephysiologicaldescriptionsof minutebodiesmadebymagnifyingglasseswithobservationsandinquiries thereupon.NationalLibraryofWales.PublicdomainviaWikimedia ImageCreditLines ix Commons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/ Louse_diagram%2C_Micrographia%2C_Robert_Hooke%2C_1667.jpg 42 4.4. MaryAnning.Creditedto‘Mr.Grey’inTickell,C.(1996).MaryAnning ofLymeRegis.Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommonshttps://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Mary_Anning_painting.jpg 46 5.1. TheinoculationofJamesPhippsbyEdwardJenner.LithographbyGaston Mélingue(c.1894).Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 49 5.2. PhotographofKarlPopper(c.1980).LSELibrary/imagelibrary/5. 51 5.3. Author’sownwork 54 5.4. MadameDuChˆateletatherdesk(detail)byMauriceQuentindeLaTour (eighteenthcentury).Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 57 6.1. EdwardGibbon,byJohnHall,afterSirJoshuaReynolds(1780).Public domain,viaWikimediaCommons. 62 6.2. PhotographofSofjaWassiljewnaKowalewskaja(unknown;1888).Public domain,viaWikimediaCommons. 67 6.3. SketchlabelledfraterOcchamiste(1341).InOckhamSummaLogicae,MS GonvilleandCaiusCollege,Cambridge.Publicdomain,viaWikimedia Commons. 70 7.1. LocationmapoftheLargeHadronColliderandSuperProtonSynchrotron. OpenStreetMapcontributors,CCBY-SA2.0<https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>,viaWikimediaCommons. 77 7.2. PhotographofSirAustinBradfordHill,unknowndate,unknownauthor. CCBY4.0<https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>,viaWikimedia Commons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/ Austin_Bradford_Hill.jpg. 79 7.3. DataobtainedfromtheVostokicecolumn,createdbyGnuplot20June 2010.Vostok-ice-core-petit.png:NOAAderivativework:Autopilot,CC BY-SA3.0,https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=579656. 86 8.1. PortraitofDrRichardPricebyBenjaminWest(1784).Publicdomain, viaWikimediaCommons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/1/1d/Richard_Price_West.jpg 89 8.2. PhotographofJohnMaynardKeynesgreetingHarryDexterWhite. InternationalMonetaryFund(1946).Publicdomain,viaWikimedia Commons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/ WhiteandKeynes.jpg 91 8.3. PhotographofSvanteArrhenius.PhotogravureMeisenbachRiffarth& Co.,Leipzig(1909).Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons.https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Arrhenius2.jpg 95 9.1. IllustrationbyHablotKnightBrowne,fromDickens,C.(1848).Dombey andSon.Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons.https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/P_595--dombey_and_son.jpg 104 9.2. DrawingfromanEgyptianrelieffromVolz,P.(1914).Diebiblischen Altertümer,p.514.copiedfromde:HethitischerStreitwagen.jpg.Public domain,viaWikimediaCommons 109

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