HowtoDoResearch How to Do Research AndHowtoBeaResearcher Robert Stewart ProfessorofPsychiatricEpidemiology&ClinicalInformatics, King’sCollegeLondon GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries ©RobertStewart2022 Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted Impression:1 Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Dataavailable LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2022943702 ISBN978–0–19–286865–7 DOI:10.1093/oso/9780192868657.001.0001 Printedandboundby CPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythird-partywebsitereferencedinthiswork. Withthankstomyacademiclinemanagersovertheyears (Anthony,Martin,Graham,Matthew)andtoeveryoneIhaveworked withandsupervised,forteachingmemostofwhatIknow. WiththankstoTrevorforkickingthetyres. AndwithgratitudebeyondexpressiontoAnge,Tom, andLuceforputtingupwithallofthis. Contents ImageCreditLines viii 1. Introduction 1 2. OriginStories 13 3. GodorClockwork?TheImportanceofIgnorance 24 4. CarefulObservation 36 5. IdeasunderPressure 48 6. ChoosingaSolution 61 7. TheIdealandtheReality 75 8. Consensus 88 9. Designing Research: From Description toTheory-Building 101 10. DesigningResearch:Experiments 114 11. DesigningResearch:AlternativestoExperiments 128 12. DesigningResearch:R&D 142 13. Communication1:GettingPublished 158 14. Communication2:GettingKnown 177 15. Money 196 16. PowerandPolitics 216 17. HowtobeaResearcher:SomeConclusions 236 Bibliography 253 Index 254 Image Credit Lines 1.1. AutotypeofJohnSnow(1856;published1887).ThomasJonesBarker, Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 8 1.2. FromSnowJ.,OntheModeofCommunicationofCholera,CFCheffins (Lith.),SouthamptonBuildings,London(1854).Publicdomainvia WikimediaCommons.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snow-cholera- map-1.jpg 9 1.3. TheSilentHighwayman(1858);Original:CartoonfromPunchMagazine 35:137;10July1858Thiscopy:CityandWaterBlog.PublicDomain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4465060 11 2.1. Source:John,L.(ed)(1999).TheOxfordhistoryofIslam.OxfordUniversity Press,Oxford.Al-Khwarizmi,Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 19 2.2. StatueofZuChongzhi.中文(简体):祖冲之铜像。(2016).Attibution: 三猎,CCBY-SA4.0.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0,via WikimediaCommons. 20 2.3. MortdelaPhilosophieHypatie.FromFiguier,L.(1872).Viesdessavants illustres,depuisl’antiquitéjusqu’audix-neuvièmesiècle.Hachette,Paris. PublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons.https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg 21 3.1. 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RobertHooke.Schem.XXXV–OfaLouse.Diagramofalouse.In Hooke,R.(1665).Micrographiaorsomephysiologicaldescriptionsof minutebodiesmadebymagnifyingglasseswithobservationsandinquiries thereupon.NationalLibraryofWales.PublicdomainviaWikimedia ImageCreditLines ix Commons.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/ Louse_diagram%2C_Micrographia%2C_Robert_Hooke%2C_1667.jpg 42 4.4. MaryAnning.Creditedto‘Mr.Grey’inTickell,C.(1996).MaryAnning ofLymeRegis.Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommonshttps://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Mary_Anning_painting.jpg 46 5.1. TheinoculationofJamesPhippsbyEdwardJenner.LithographbyGaston Mélingue(c.1894).Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 49 5.2. PhotographofKarlPopper(c.1980).LSELibrary/imagelibrary/5. 51 5.3. Author’sownwork 54 5.4. MadameDuChˆateletatherdesk(detail)byMauriceQuentindeLaTour (eighteenthcentury).Publicdomain,viaWikimediaCommons. 57 6.1. EdwardGibbon,byJohnHall,afterSirJoshuaReynolds(1780).Public domain,viaWikimediaCommons. 62 6.2. 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