How the Societal Metabolism-Labour Nexus Changes from Agrarian to Industrial Societie

21 Pages·2017·6.37 MB·English

sustainability
Article
More Energy and Less Work, but New Crises: How
the Societal Metabolism-Labour Nexus Changes from
Agrarian to Industrial Societies
WilliHaas1,*andHailemariamBirkeAndarge2
1 InstituteofSocialEcology,AlpenAdriaUniversitaet,1070Vienna,Austria
2 DepartmentofGeographyandEnvironmentalStudies,DebreBerhanUniversity,
445DebreBerhan,Ethiopia;[email protected]
* Correspondence:[email protected];Tel.:[phone]
Received:30January2017;Accepted:4June2017;Published:26June2017
Abstract: The scientific finding that humanity is overburdening nature and thus risks further
ecological crises is almost uncontroversial. Main reason for the crises is the drastic increase in
the societal metabolism, which is accomplished through labour. In this article, we examine the
societalmetabolism-labournexusintwoenergyregimes: avalleyintheEthiopianhighlands,typical
ofanagrariansociety,andavillageinAustria,typicalofanindustrialsociety. IntheEthiopianvillage,
thesupplyoffooddemandsalmosttheentirelabourforce,thuslimitingthecapacitytofacilitate
materialflowsbeyondfoodprovision.IntheAustrianvillage,fewerworkinghours,lowerworkloads
but50timeshigherusefulenergyallowtoaccumulatestockslikebuildings70timeshigherthan
theEthiopiancase. Withfossilenergy, industrialsocietiesdecisivelyexpandtheirenergysupply
andreducelabourhoursatthecostofhighcarbonemissions,whicharealmostnon-existentinthe
Ethiopiancase. Toovercometheresultingecologicalcrises,thereisacalltodrasticallyreducefossil
fuelconsumption. Suchanabandonmentoffossilfuelsmighthaveasfarreachingconsequencesfor
thesocietalmetabolism-labournexusandconsequentlyhumanlabourastheintroductionoffossil
fuelshashad.
Keywords: labour;sociometabolictransition;energyregimes;primaryenergy;exergy
1. Introduction: HumanLabourandtheSociometabolicTransition
Globalecologicalcrisessuchasclimatechangeortheprogressivelossofspecieshavealready
crossedtheplanetaryboundariesforasafeoperatingspaceforhumanity[1]. Scientificanalyseseven
gosofarastocharacterizemankindasageologicalfactorinthenewly-definedAnthropocene[2].
Inthisepoch,humanshavebecomethedominantinfluenceonbiological,geologicalandatmospheric
processesoftheearthsystem. Theinsightthatthisincreasinghumandominanceoftheearthsystem
isduetotherapidlygrowingsocietalmetabolism,globalsociety’smaterialandenergeticexchange
withnature,becomesmoreandmoreaccepted[3]. Maindriverofthisdevelopmentareespecially
industrializedandemergingeconomies.
Thegrowingsocialmetabolismhasbecomepossibleduetoanenergytransition,namelyashift
away from the biomass-based energy regime of agrarian societies to fossil fuel-based industrial
societies [4,5]. In this article, we want to show that such energy transitions go hand in hand with
atransitionofhumanlabouritself. Thisisimportant,sinceintensifyingglobalecologicalcrises,sooner
orlater,requireanewtransitionawayfromtheuseoffossilfuelswhichisexpectedtohaveasmany
and equally far-reaching implications for human labour as the previous transition to a fossil-fuel
basedindustrialsocietyhad[6]. Thus,itseemstoberewardingtobetterunderstandtheinterplay
betweenmaterialuse,energyconsumption,andlabourinthecontextofthedifferentenergyregimes.
Sustainability2017,9,1041;doi:10.3390/su9071041 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability2017,9,1041 2of21
Toinvestigatewhatwecallthesocietalmetabolism-labournexus,wemakeuseofasociometabolic
perspective. Tothisend,inafirststep,wedevelopasimpleanalyticalschemeinthefollowingsection
(Section2). Inasecondstep,beforepresentingtwocasestudies,webrieflyintroducemethodsand
describe surveys as well as data generation for the cases (Section 3). In a third step, we apply the
schemetotwolocalcases, oneasillustrationforanagrarian(Section4)andoneasillustrationfor
aruralvillageinanindustrialsociety(Section4). ThefirstlocalcaseisinEthiopia,inavalleyinthe
highlands. Thelocalagrariancommunityisbasedonbiomassastheprimaryenergysourceanduses
fossilenergycarriersonlytoaminorextent. ThesecondcaseisanAustrianvillagewhichispartofan
industrialsocietybasedontheuseoffossilenergy. Afteradetailedpresentationofthetwocases,in
aforthstep,wecontextualisetheresultsonthesocietalmetabolism-labournexuswithaveragedata
takenfromliteratureandcomparethetwocaseswitheachotherforbetterunderstandingthesocietal
metabolism-labournexus(Section5).
2. TheSocialMetabolism-Labour-Nexus
Societychangesnaturebothinanintentionalandanunintentionalway,andthechangesinturn
affectsociety. Thesesociety-natureinteractionsareanalysedwiththeconceptsofsocialmetabolism,
society’smaterialandenergeticexchangewithnature,andthecolonizationofnature[7–11]. Basedon
theideaofthemetabolismdevelopedbyMarx[12],theconceptwasfurtherdevelopedanalogouslyto
theeconomicperspectiveinthenationalaccounts. Itisnotsimplyhumans,takenontheirown,who
aredependentandhaveanimpactonnature,butthesocietalmodeofproductionandconsumption
whichwecallsociometabolicregime. Keytometabolicregimesistheenergyavailabilityquantitatively
across space which on the one hand largely determines the capacity of humans to change nature
andtoremove,transportandprocessresourcesandontheotherhandmakesabigdifferenceforthe
societalconditionse.g.,howmuchtimeremainsforotheractivitiesthanfoodprovisioning. Inthe
historyofmankind,severalsociometabolicregimescanbedistinguishedwithdistinctivetransitions
betweenthem,oftenreferredtoasrevolutions. TheNeolithicrevolutionmarksthetransitionfromthe
regimeofhuntingandgatheringtotheagrariansociety,andtheindustrialrevolutionthetransition
fromtheagrariantotheindustrialregime. Apartfromveryfewexceptions(e.g.,smallislandstates
wherewindasdriveenergyforsailingboatsusedfortradingandfishingcouldmakeupasignificant
shareinthesocietalenergysupply),biomassisbyfarthemostimportantsourceofenergyuntilthe
industrialrevolution. Asarule,biomassprovidesabout99%oftheprimaryenergyinpreindustrial
societies. Foodandfeedforhumansandanimalscomprisesbyfarthelargestshareofthisenergy
input. Byusingbiomass,humansmakeuseofsolarenergyflowsthroughlandmanagement. The
GermanenvironmentalhistorianRolfPeterSieferle[4]calledthisthecontrolledsolarenergysystemof
agriculturalsocieties. Workofapopulationonagiventerritoryisinvestedtotransformecosystems
andtoincreasetheamountofusablebiomassthatcanbeharvestedperunitofarea. Aminimum
prerequisiteforthelong-termfunctioningofsuchanenergysystemisthattheharvestedbiomass
at least provides the necessary energy for human and animal work in the form of food and feed.
The higher the surplus, the more complex societal structures are possible. However, in agrarian
societies,thissurplusisquitelimitedandisaroundten%inaverageyears[6]thuslimitingthenumber
ofpeoplewhoarenottiedtoworkforsociety’sfoodprovision.
Thestillongoingindustrializationofagriculturesincethe16thcentury[3]hasledtoamassive
transformationoftheagriculturallandscape,whichhastobemademachine-friendly. Largefields
have been created, from which all the species-rich field margins with ditches and shrubs, and
landmorphologicalobstacleshavebeenremoved. Workingwithheavyequipmentpromotedsoil
compaction and erosion. Large-scale monocultures require a high use of agrochemicals [13–15]
Consequently,theroleofagriculturewithinsocietychangeddramaticallyduringthetransitionfrom
an agrarian to an industrial society. While agriculture in agrarian societies is mainly an energy
supplierbyprovidingfoodandanimallabour,industrializedagricultureconsumesmoreenergythan
isultimatelyobtainedfromit[16–18]. Thisismadepossiblebyfossilfuels,whichcanbeminedin
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largequantitiesofdepositsasrequired. Further,fossilfuelshaveveryfavourablefeatureslikethe
combinationofeasyportabilitywithtrucksandpipelines,andahighenergydensitywhichisabout
threetimesashighastheoneofbiomass. Thus,accesstofossilfuelsenableshighenergyavailability
almostanytimeandanywhere.
Today,halfoftheworld’spopulationstilllivesundermoreorlessagrarianconditions[3],and
whatisusuallycalleddevelopmentorprogresscanbeunderstoodasatransitionfromtheagrarianto
anindustrialregime[19]. Todiscusstheinterplaybetweenwork,energyandmaterialmorespecifically
inthetwodifferentregimes,weintroducetwoempiricalcases: anagrariancommunityinavalley
oftheEthiopianhighlandsandanindustrializedAustrianruralvillage. Thesetwoexamplesserve
asillustrativecasesforthetworegimes. Inagrariansocieties,therearenotabledifferencesbetween
localcaseswithvariationsinsoilfertility,climaticconditions,agriculturalpractices,favouredplants,
importance of livestock, population density and others. The same can be stated for rural cases in
industrialsocieties. However, despitetheseremarkabledifferencesintheirmetabolicrates, thisis
materialandenergyusepercapita,variationswithininoneenergyregimearenotassignificantasthe
differencesfromonetoanotherenergyregime[3,4,20,21]. Further,despitethedifferencesbetween
casesofoneandthesameenergyregime,theydisplaynoteworthycommunalitieshowtheychangein
thetransitionlikethebuildingupofgrowingstocks,theincreaseduseoftechnologyhandinhand
withlessandlessmanpowerneededtosupplysocietieswiththenecessaryfood,feedandtechnical
energy. Therefore, our analysis is less concerned about differences within one energy regime, but
focussesonthemorefundamentaldifferencesintherelationbetweenwork,energyandmaterialin
twocasesillustrativefortwodifferentenergyregimes.
Toinvestigatethesedifferences,weuseasimpleanalyticalschemeconsistingofthefollowing
dimensions[6,22]:
(A) Societal stocks: human population, domesticated animals, colonized land and man-
madeartefacts.
(B) Sociometabolicmaterialflowslikeextraction,tradeflowsandmaterialconsumption.
(C) Primaryenergyandusefulenergyrelatedtohumanlabour,animallabourandtechnology.
Basedonthisschemeandthemethodsdescribedinthefollowingsection,wediscussthesocietal
metabolism-labournexusintwocases,oneinanagrarianandoneinanindustrialsociety.
3. MethodsUsedandDataSources
ThetwocasestudiesfollowstandardMaterialFlowAccountingprinciples. Therefore,wepresent
hereonlyasummaryandprovideanoverviewofthereferencesused. Inthisdescription,wepay
specialattentiontoissuesespeciallyrelevantforthecasesorwherethecasesslightlydeviatefrom
thestandards. Further,wedescribethesurveysperformedtogeneratethesedataandgivereferences
for more detailed information on the case studies. Further, we provide some background on the
methodologyforcalculatingusefulenergyandprovidethereferences,wherethesemethodisdiscussed
inmoredetail. Finally,webrieflydescribehowcarbonemissionsareestimatedforthetwocases.
3.1. MaterialFlowAccounting(MFA)
Thebaseoftheanalysisreliesontheconceptualframeworkandthesystemboundariesapplied
ineconomy-widematerialflowaccountingatnationallevel(MFA)[9,11,23–25]. Theguideandfurther
referencesconsistentlyprovidedetailedinformationrelevantforaccounting.
3.1.1. MethodologicalandConceptualConsiderations
Societalmetabolismisbasedonthepremisethatanysocialsystemreproducesitselfbiophysically
throughaconstantflowofmaterialsandenergywithitsnaturalenvironmentaswellaswithother
socialsystems. Thus,sizeandcompositionofflowsareintricatelylinkedtothebiophysicalstocksof
thesocialsystem;therefore,weareespeciallyinterestedinstocks. Tomeasurethebiophysicalflow
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characteristic,weusedomesticmaterialconsumptionasakeyindicator,whichismaterialextraction
plusimportsminusexportswithinayear. Thisindicatorincludesnotjusttheconsumptionofpeople,
butalsothefeedforlivestockandallmaterialstomaintainorexpandsocietalstocksaswellasalllosses
occurringduringtheprocessingofmaterials. Further,flowsinthetwocasesarebrokendowninto
mainmaterialgroupsinaccordancewithmaterialflowaccountingconventions(cf.[25]). Weusually
distinguishintobiomass(likecereals,grass,wood,etc.),mineralmaterials(non-metallicmineralslike
sand,gravel,stones,cementetc. mainlyforconstructionandmetals)andfossilenergycarriers(likeoil,
gas,coal). Practically,flowsaremeasuredintonnesforaspecificyearandallflowslikebiomassare
reportedinfreshweight. Standardmoisturecontentsareprovidedintheguide. Biggestuncertainties
existforconstructionmineralssincethesematerialsareconsumedinlargequantitiesbutinirregular
intervals. Thus,accountingannualflowsinsmalllocalcommunitiesviasurveysorobservationsmight
provideanaccuratebutmisleadingresult,especiallyifmainconstructionworkwasperformedjustin
thestudiedyearor,incontrast,inmanyyearsbutnotinthestudiedyear. Inourcases,weprovide
anaveragepictureandthereforeaskedpeopleaboutstockchangesinthepreviousyearsandestimated
anannualaverageofadditionstostocks,whichstillhashigheruncertaintiesthanotherflowdata.
Insocialmetabolismresearchboundariesarenotterritorialonesbutfunctionalones. Whilethis
issueisofminorrelevancefortheeconomy-widematerialflowaccounting,thisbecomesquiteatricky
issueatthelocallevel. Toaccountforthis,furtherstandardswereappliedasdiscussedinthelocal
studies manual [26]. In order to follow a functional understanding of system boundaries in both
cases,wefirstdefinedwhobelongstothecommunityorvillageinaccordancetopoliticaloreconomic
membershipaswellassimplybyfactualpresence.Thus,people,astockofthesocialsystem,isdefined.
Iftheboundariesarefunctionalandnotterritorial,itneedstobeclarifiedwhichland,anothersocietal
stock,belongstothesocialsystem. Thelandunderconsiderationisthelandthatisunderlegitimate
controlofthemembersofthecommunity. Inourtwospecificcases,landwasinvolvedwhichwas
positionedsotosayoutsidetheterritorybutunderlegitimatecontrolofmembersofthecommunity.
InBahskuritoutsidetheterritorymeansoutsidethevalleyrespectivelythewatershedandinTheyern
outsidemeansoutsidethepoliticalboundariesofthevillage. Thus,flowsrelatedtothislandunder
legitimate control of the Bashkurit Valley were accounted for. Consequently, land and its related
flows under legitimate control of persons not belonging to the respective local society but within
thepoliticalbordersofTheyernorthegeographicboundaryofBashkuritValleywasnotconsidered.
Asocialsystem’slivestockisdeterminedbybelongingtopeopleofthesocialsystemorwhentheir
reproductionlikefeeding,healthcareandbreedingiscontrolledbylocalpeople. Analogous,whether
artefactsbelongtoasocialsystemornotisdefinedviabelongingtoormaintenancebyamemberof
thesocialsystem.
These are in brief the principles applied in these studies to identify societal stocks and flows
forthetwocases. Allthesedecisionstoidentifyasocialsystem’sstockisdiscussedinmoredetail
in manuals for the national as well as the local level, also including practical conventions such as
definitionswheretheboundarybetweensocietyandnatureisdrawn[23–26].
3.1.2. SurveysandData
Whileeconomy-widematerialflowaccountingatthecountrylevelcanrelymainlyonstatistical
data,thelocallevelmostlycan’tuseanystatisticalinformationsincetheyarenotaccurateenough
orsimplyarenotavailableatall. Therefore, inbothlocalcasestudiespresentedhereasurveyfor
generatingprimarydatawasperformed. InBashkuritValleythesurveywasdoneduringaoneyear
fieldtrip. Basedonthedatarequirementsfortheanalysisofland,material,energyandtimeuse,the
researcherandhisresearchassistantapplieddifferentsurveymethods. Basedonexistingmapsfrom
previousstudiesaninspectionofthelandwasperformedtoestablishthedifferenttypesoflanduse.
Thisinformationwaslaterverifiedingroupdiscussions. Numberoflivestockwasestablishedduring
ahouseholdsurveyandcattlenumberswereverifiedbycountinganimalsinstables. Extractionof
harvestandfirewoodwasestimatedbyweighingthebundlestypicallyputtogetherbyinhabitants.
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Incombinationwithresultsfromhouseholdsurveysaboutthenumberofbundlesproducedduring
ayear,harvestandfirewoodamountswerecalculated. Thiswascross-checkedwithyieldfactors
fromthelocaluniversityinGondar. Grazingamountswereestimatedbyfeedrequirementsperhead
ofthedifferenttypesofdomesticanimalsminusthefodderprovidedbythefarmers. Information
on the later was gathered during the household survey. Time use data were obtained by a mix
of in-depth participatory observations of a variety of different persons (representing different age
groups,gender,familysizesandwealth),householdsurveysandgroupdiscussions. Thedataonthe
householdpossessionswasgainedduringthehouseholdsurveybyweighingthetypicalartefactsin
somehouseholdsandbycountingnumberofartefactsinallsurveyedhouseholds. Weightofbuildings
wascalculatedbyestimatingtheweightofeachmaterialcomponent(wood,grass,metal,stone,clay,
bricksandcement)usedfortwodifferenttypesofhouses(rectangulartin-roofhousesandcircular
thatched-roofhouses). Tin-roofhousesaremainlyusedasresidentialhouses, whilethatched-roof
houses are mainly used as kitchen buildings and stables. Detailed information is documented in
Andarge[27].
InTheyerndataweremainlygainedbyhouseholdsurveysandmethodsanddatadescribedin
detailinHaasandKrausmann[28]. About80%ofthehouseholdswereinterviewedandalmostallof
themwereverycollaborative. Eachinterviewwasperformedbytwointerviewerswhowerepartof
aresearchteamwithverygoodknowledgeonthemethodofmaterialflowaccounting.Sinceanofficial
mapwithdemarcationlineswaspreparedintheyearbeforetheinterview,itwasusedtodiscusswith
eachhouseholdwhichlandisundertheircontrolandwhatistheactuallanduse(incaseoffields
farmedcropswereinquired). Severaldataonthebuildingslikesquaremeters,floors,rooftype,key
materialsusedanddateofconstructionwerecollected. Thisinformationwascross-checkedwithaerial
photographs. Weightofbuildingswasestimatedbyusingafactorrelatedtothehabitableareaofthe
buildings[29]. Dataonvehiclesliketypeandbrandofvehicle,mileageperyear,fuelconsumptionper
100kmwascollected. Withthesefiguresandstandardfactorsforvehicleweightstheoverallstocksof
vehiclesaswellastheannualfuelconsumptionwasestimated. Estimatingthehouseholdpossession
wasadifficulttask,sinceavastnumberofartefactswerepresentinthehouses. Thus,possessionswere
establishedbyachecklistcontainingdifferentproductgroups,withheavierproductsbeinglistedin
moredetail. Electricitybillswereanalysedtogetherwiththeintervieweestoobtainthekilowatthours
peryear. Harvestdatafromagriculturalfieldsaswellasthelocalforestswerewellknownbyfarmers
andthusdatacollectionwassimple. Cross-checkingwithtypicalyielddataconfirmedtheinformation.
Localconsumptionoflocallyproducedfoodwassurveyedaswell. Foodrequirementsforthelocal
populationwasestimatedonthebaseofaveragenutritiondataincludingaveragefoodwastelosses
forAustria. Thus,importsoffoodwereestimatedbydeductingtheconsumedfoodlocallyproduced
fromthefoodrequirements,sincethiscanbeassumedtobepurchasedelsewhere. Regardingtime
useonlytimespentforeconomicactivitieswasinquired(employment,farming,assistanceinfarming
activities).
In principle time use was surveyed on an annual base, this means that weekly and seasonal
differencesincludingholidays(inthecaseofAustria)werespecificallyaskedfortoestimatetheannual
timespentforlabour. Thedailytimeuseforlabourwasthenthedivisionoftheannualtimespent
by365.
3.2. PrimaryandUsefulEnergy
Inprinciple,themethodappliedherefollowsthedetaileddescriptionpresentedinatwo-part
articlebyHaberl[20,30]. Inadditiontomaterials,thebiophysicalreproductionofsocialsystems(and
thusit’ssocietalstocks)requiresacontinuoussupplywithenergy,whichcanbeprovidedbymaterials
intheformofmaterialenergycarrierslikebiomassorfossilfuelsorbyelectricity,whichflowswithout
material. Inourstudy,wedistinguishbetweenprimaryenergyandusefulenergy.
Primary energy is defined as the energy in the form in which it is extracted from the natural
environment,forexample,extractedenergy-richmaterials(biomass,fossilfuels),harnessedflowsof
Sustainability2017,9,1041 6of21
mechanicalenergy(hydropower,windpower,etc.),nuclearenergytransformedtoheat,orradiant
solarenergyusedtoproduceheatorelectricity[30]. Tohighlighttwocase-specificexamples: primary
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1041 6 of 21
energyistheenergeticvalueoffirewoodforcooking/heatingorofcerealsforhumannutritionat
tphoeinpto oinf tetxhterarcetsiopnec, teivveene nife ritg yis ciamrrpyoirntgedm. aFtoerr ieaxlsamarpelceo, lilne cttheed cfarosem offo lroecsatsl eolrehctarrivcietsyt ecdonfrsoummpfiteilodns,.
Wweh ecnonwsiedaecrc tohuen rtefloartepdr ipmraimryareyn eerngeyrginy ohuarrntwesosecda siens ,aw heyadlrwopayoswceorn psliadnetr othre thene eorigl yexcotrnatcetnedta ftrothme
pnoatiunrteo wfehxitcrha cwtiaosn u,seevde ntoi fpirtoidsuimcep eolertcetrdi.ciFtyo rine xaa tmheprlme,ailn ptohweecra spelaonft.l o calelectricityconsumption,
wecoUnsseifduelr etnheergreyl a(“teedxeprgriym”)a risy tehnee erngeyrhgyar tnheasts iesd uilntimaahtyedlyr oupsoedw oerr pavlaaniltaobrlet htoe sooiclieextytr a(scetee dFifgruomre
n1)a.t Tuhreisw rehfiecrhs wtoa tshues aecdtutoalplyro udsuecfuele wleoctrrki csiutychin aas mthoervminagl ap opwilee ropf lsaanntd. from one place to another or
the pUhysesficualle dnreirvgey p(“oewxeerr gpyu”l)liinsgth ae pelnoeurgghy ftohra tai cseurlttaiimna dteislytaunsceed, oorr tahvea tihlaebrlmeatol esnoeciregtyy t(hseaet hFiegautsr eth1e).
Tfohoids rienf etrhset ocothoekiancgtu paollty. uSosecfieutliewso drkispsuocshe aosvmero uvsinefgual epnileergofy sdaneldivferroemd obnye hpulamceantos, adnoomtheesrtiocrattehde
panhiymsiaclasl adnrdiv teepchonwoelropgyu.l lTinhgesaep dloifufegrhenfot rtyapceesr toafi nwdoirskt atnakcee,no trotgheeththeer,r mwael ceanlle srgoyciethtaalt uhseeaftuslt ehneefrogoyd.
iOnft shpeeccoiaolk iinntgerpeostt. iSs ohcoiewti emsudcishp uosseefouvl eernuersgeyfu ilse innevregsytedde lbivye hreudmbaynsh uinm tahnes f,odromm oefs thicuamteadna lnaibmoualrs.
aUnsdeftuelc hwnoorlko giny.clTuhdeisnegd hifufemreannt atnypde asnoifmwalo rlakbtoaukre nast owgeeltlh aesr, wwoercka pllesrofcoiremtaeldu sbeyf utelcehnnerogloy.gOiefs scpaenc ibael
iqnutaenretsittaitsivheolwy rmecuocrhdeuds eifnu jloeunlee r[g3y1,i3s2i]n. vIne satdeddibtiyonh,u hmuamnasnin latbhoeufro rsmpeonft hinu tmhae neclaobnooumr.icU ssyesftuelmw loikrke
ifnocr laugdriincgulhtuurme aonr wanadgea nlaimboaulrl acbaonu brea esxwperellsasesdw ionr akvpeerrafgoer mhoeudrbs ywtoerckhendo lpoegri epsecrasonnb aenqdu danatyi t[a2t6iv].e Ilny
rpercaocrtdiceed, ianlljo huoleu[r3s1 ,a3n2]n.uInalalyd dwitoiornk,ehdu mina na lalobcoaul rcsopmenmtiunntihtye eacroen osmurivcesyyestde manlidk edfoivriadgerdic ublytu troetoarl
wpoapguellaatbioonu rancadn 3b6e5 edxapyrse. sTshede uinseafvuel reangeerghyo uprrsowviodrekde dbyp heurmpearnsos nisa tnhdend tahye [p2r6o].dIunctp oraf chtoicuer,sa wllohrokuerds
aanndnu thalel yavweorarkgee dwionrak lloocaadl pcoerm hmouurn (itJy/haoruers) u[2rv0]e.y edanddividedbytotalpopulationand365days.
TheuTseecfhunliecnaellryg, yusperfouvli edneedrgbyy ihs uthmea rnesmiasitnhienng tehneerpgryo dauftcetr oafllh coounrvsewrsoiornk elodsasensd atrhee daevdeurcatgeed wfroormk
ltohaed ppriemrahroyu ern(eJ/rghyo uarn)d[ 2t0h]e. conversion efficiency is the ratio between useful to primary energy.

Figure 1. (a) Conversion from primary energy as extracted from nature to societal useful energy at
Figure1. (a)Conversionfromprimaryenergyasextractedfromnaturetosocietalusefulenergyat
point of societal use by type of useful energy delivered and conversion efficiency as output to input
pointofsocietalusebytypeofusefulenergydeliveredandconversionefficiencyasoutputtoinput
ratio [20,30]; (b) Alternative view of societal useful energy by the three converters humans, animals
ratio[20,30];(b)Alternativeviewofsocietalusefulenergybythethreeconvertershumans,animals
and technology to deliver useful energy and indication of human labour as sub-category of societal
andtechnologytodeliverusefulenergyandindicationofhumanlabourassub-categoryofsocietal
useful energy (schematic sketch presents conceptual relations but no real flow proportions).
usefulenergy(schematicsketchpresentsconceptualrelationsbutnorealflowproportions).
In the case of human labour in Bashkurit Valley (agrarian society) the assumptions are that
Technically,usefulenergyistheremainingenergyafterallconversionlossesaredeductedfrom
humans can deliver up to 100 Watt per hour in continuous work [33]. This is, however, a maximum.
theprimaryenergyandtheconversionefficiencyistheratiobetweenusefultoprimaryenergy.
A continuous delivery of 40–50 Watt useful power per hour may be an appropriate guess; based on
In the case of human labour in Bashkurit Valley (agrarian society) the assumptions are that
the 5 h of work per day in Bashkurit Valley this equals about 300 MJ per capita and year. In Theyern
humanscandeliverupto100Wattperhourincontinuouswork[33]. Thisis,however,amaximum.
(industrialized society), it is estimated that the continuous delivery for farming activities is about 50%
Acontinuousdeliveryof40–50Wattusefulpowerperhourmaybeanappropriateguess;basedon
of the one in agricultural societies and for desk work about 30% of agrarian farming; based on 2.5 h
the5hofworkperdayinBashkuritValleythisequalsabout300MJpercapitaandyear. InTheyern
of work per day in average in Theyern, this equals about 50 MJ per capita and year. In a similar way,
the useful energy for animals in Bahskurit was calculated according to Haberl [20]. In the case of
Theyern the animal labour of horses was calculated by assuming 250 Watt of useful energy per hour
of horseback riding [34]. With one hour of daily riding for both horses this adds up to 5 MJ per person
and year. Useful energy delivered by vehicle motors was calculated assuming an efficiency of 15%
(from final energy to useful energy) [35] and the efficiency from primary to final energy was assumed
Sustainability2017,9,1041 7of21
(industrializedsociety),itisestimatedthatthecontinuousdeliveryforfarmingactivitiesisabout50%
oftheoneinagriculturalsocietiesandfordeskworkabout30%ofagrarianfarming;basedon2.5h
ofworkperdayinaverageinTheyern,thisequalsabout50MJpercapitaandyear. Inasimilarway,
the useful energy for animals in Bahskurit was calculated according to Haberl [20]. In the case of
Theyerntheanimallabourofhorseswascalculatedbyassuming250Wattofusefulenergyperhourof
horsebackriding[34]. Withonehourofdailyridingforbothhorsesthisaddsupto5MJperperson
andyear. Usefulenergydeliveredbyvehiclemotorswascalculatedassuminganefficiencyof15%
(fromfinalenergytousefulenergy)[35]andtheefficiencyfromprimarytofinalenergywasassumed
with65%[20];theefficiencyofcookingwasassumedtobe6%forBashkuritvalley[36]. Inviewofthe
three-stonecookingtechnologyused,thisassumptionseemstoberealistic. Ifthecookingtakesplace
inthehut,thefireforcookingalsoheatsthehut. Thiscouldincreasetheefficiencyoftheenergyuseto
asmuchas80%albeitonlyincoldseasons. Inthiscalculation,thiswasneglected,alsobecausethe
warmthrapidlyescapesinthedraughtyhuts. Duetotheindoorpollution,hutsneedtobedraughtyto
limitharmfulhealtheffects. Mainreasonfornotconsideringthewasteheatofcookinghasheating
is that the heat is mainly required in the residential houses, while the warmth is generated in the
kitchenhuts. ThecookingefficiencyforTheyernwasestimatedtobe30%(accordingtoHaberl). Space
heatinginTheyernwascalculatedaccordingtoassumptionsmadebyHaberlbutadjustedtothelocal
energy mix (biomass, oil, electricity, solar energy for hot water). In a similar way, the conversion
frompetroleumtolightingintheBashkuritValleyisbasedonHaberl’sassumptionsbutadjustedto
petroleumastheonlysource.
3.3. CarbonEmissions
For estimating the carbon emissions a simple calculator was used [37]. The country-specific
emissionsfactorsappliedhereare2.8kgCO /litregasoline,3.2kgCO /litredieselorheatingoiland
2 2
0.184kgCO /kWhelectricityforTheyern. PetroleumusedintheBashkuritValleywascalculatedwith
2
2.8kgCO /litre. Biomasswasassumedtobecarbonneutralinbothcases.
2
4. NoTime: InsightsintoanAgrarianSocietyoftheEthiopianBashkuritValley
The first case is located in Ethiopia, a country that has seen fast growth in recent years, but
GDPpercapitaiswith500US$(incurrentpricesfor2012)[38]oneofthelowestintheworld. The
agriculturalsectoraccountsforabout47%ofnationalGDPand85%ofemployment[39]. Agriculture
ismainlyrain-fed,dominatedbysmallholders(Lavers2012)andshowsduetotheverylowuseof
fossilenergyandmachinerytypicalpatternsofanagrariansociety[40].
ThecasestudyareaitselfisavalleycalledBashkuritandlocatedinthenorthwestofEthiopia.Itlies
northofGondar(populationapproximately200,000),thefourthlargestcityinEthiopia(seeFigure2).
The closest road to Gondar is a few kilometres away and can only be reached on foot paths. The
landscapeisabout2300mabovesealevel,isslightlyhillyandbarreninallseasonsexceptforsummer
(June to September). The inhabitants feed themselves by means of a sophisticated system of field
andlivestockfarmingandusefossilfuelsforlightingonly. Asinmanyagrariansocieties,rainisof
existentialimportanceintheBashkuritValleyasitdetermineswhetherthenextharvestissufficientfor
localfoodsuppliesandwhether—inthebestcase—asurpluscanbesoldinthemarket. InBashkurit,
theprecipitationisayearlyaverageof1200mmperyear,muchmorethaninthelow-precipitation
north-eastofAustria(450mm)androughlyattheleveloftheAustrianaverage(1100mm). However,
rainfallsmoreconcentratedinashortertime,namely80%oftherainfallinfoursummermonths(June
toSeptember). Inaddition,rainfallissubjecttostrongannualfluctuations,andbothsevererainfall
anddroughtsoccurfrequently. ThedailytemperaturemaximumrangesfromsevendegreesCelsius
inNovemberto32degreesCelsiusinApril. Inaccordancewiththisclimate,theBashkuritValleyis
harvestedonceperyear.
Wepreparedacomplexmaterialandenergyflowcalculationforthevalley. Forayear,thepeople
inthevalleywitnessedandparticipatedinweighing,measuring,observing,countingandrecording
Sustainability2017,9,1041 8of21
foradetailedstocktakingexerciseofthematerialstocks,materialandenergyflowsaswellastime
use[27]. Alldatarefertotheyear2012.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1041 8 of 21

Figure 2. The Bashkurit Valley in summer (Photo: Hailemariam B. Andarge).
Figure2.TheBashkuritValleyinsummer(Photo:HailemariamB.Andarge).
4.1. Societal Stocks: People, Livestocks, Land and Artifacts
4.1. SocietalStocks: People,Livestocks,LandandArtifacts
In 2012, 2200 people lived in six villages of two to 13-person families (an average of seven
In2012,2200peoplelivedinsixvillagesoftwoto13-personfamilies(anaverageofsevenpersons
persons live in about 310 households) in the valley. The annual population growth in the valley is
livbeeitnwaebeonu ttw3o1 0anhdo uthsreeheo %ld,s t)hien pthopeuvlaaltlieoyn. hTahse daonunbulaeldp ino pthuela ltaisotn 2g5 ryoewarths. iLnifteh eexvpaelcletaynicsyb aett wbiertehn itnw o
andEtthhiorepeia% is, dtheesppiotep iumlaptrioovnehmaesndtso wubitlhe d61i nyetahres lsatsiltl 2lo5wy e[4a1r]s.. AL infeateioxnpaelc sttarnacteygayt fbroirmth 1i9n93E tahimiosp aiat is
desap biitrethim raptero rvedemucetniotns:w foirth w6o1myeena, risnsstteilaldlo owf 7[.471, ]o.nAly n4a.0t icohnialdlrsetnra atreeg tyo fbroe mbo1rn9 9[327a]i. mBescaatuaseb oirft thhirsa te
redsutrcattieogny:, fothrew Boamsheknu,riint sVteaaldleyo fh7a.s7 ,roencelynt4ly.0 sceheinld ar esnligahret tdoecbleinbeo irnn t[h2e7 ]b.iBrtehc aruastee, oinf tehfifsesctt rgarteogwyt,ht he
BacsohnktuinriuteVs aalllbeeyith salsowreecre. nIntl ythsee e1n70a0 shliegchtatrdese colfi ntheei nvathlleeyb, iartbhourat toen,ein theifrfdec otfg trhoew atrheac oisn tfionruesets aanldbe it
sloswcreurb.lIanntdh, eab1o7u00t ah tehcitradr easreo ffietlhdes,v aa qllueay,rtaebr oauret hoendegtehsi,r adnodf tthhee reamreaainisinfgo rreosutgahnldy esicgrhutb %la narde, raobcokuy ta
thiordr uasreedfi feolrd psa,tahqs uanardt ebruailrdeinhgesd [g2e7s],. Tanhde 2th20e0r pemeoapilnei inng 2r0o1u2g hhellyd emigohret t%haanr e40r0o cokxyeno,r 9u00s ecdowfosr, 3p0a0t hs
anddobnukielydsin, 1g5s0[02 s7h].eeTph aen2d2 g0o0aptse oasp wleeilnl a2s0 11020h0 eplodumltroyr aentihmaanls4. 0T0hoe xfaemn,il9i0es0 lcivoewds i,n3 o0v0edr o5n00k ehyosu,s1e5s 00
(some families had more than one house), 80% of which are covered with corrugated iron. The
sheepandgoatsaswellas1000poultryanimals. Thefamilieslivedinover500houses(somefamilies
remaining houses have grass roofs. 2.4 tonnes of material per person are used for houses, about half
hadmorethanonehouse),80%ofwhicharecoveredwithcorrugatediron. Theremaininghouses
of the material is biomass and the other half consists of minerals such as stones, clay and iron (for the
havegrassroofs. 2.4tonnesofmaterialperpersonareusedforhouses,abouthalfofthematerialis
corrugated iron roofs). By way of comparison, for Europe, the values are between 130 and 325 tonnes
biomassandtheotherhalfconsistsofmineralssuchasstones,clayandiron(forthecorrugatediron
per capita [42]. Household and personal possessions add up to about 130 kg per person in Bashkurit.
roofs). Bywayofcomparison,forEurope,thevaluesarebetween130and325tonnespercapita[42].
Due to the absence of a power supply network, there are neither electric household appliances nor
Household and personal possessions add up to about 130 kg per person in Bashkurit. Due to the
electronic devices such as mobile phones or computers, except for a few radios. Much of the
absenceofapowersupplynetwork, thereareneitherelectrichouseholdappliancesnorelectronic
household items consist of kitchen utensils, furniture and agricultural tools such as pickaxes and
devicessuchasmobilephonesorcomputers,exceptforafewradios. Muchofthehouseholditems
ploughs. Some of the households also have petroleum lamps. Aside from clothing, personal
consistofkitchenutensils,furnitureandagriculturaltoolssuchaspickaxesandploughs. Someof
possession is minimal and consists mainly of school supplies for children. For adults, possession of
the households also have petroleum lamps. Aside from clothing, personal possession is minimal
the Bible is of high personal importance.
and consists mainly of school supplies for children. For adults, possession of the Bible is of high
per4s.2o.n Maleitmabpoloicr tFalnowces. of a Valley in an Agrarian Society
In the Bashkurit valley, approximately 7000 tonnes of material or 3.2 tonnes per person are
4.2. MetabolicFlowsofaValleyinanAgrarianSociety
extracted annually from the local environment (Table 1). These consist almost entirely of biomass,
rouInghtlhye 4B0%as hofk huarritvevsatlelde yf,iealdp pcrroopxism (tahtreeley-f7o0u0rt0hsto anrne emsiollfetm, wahteeraita, lcoorrn3, .t2eftfo annnde sbapreleryp), e4r0s%on ofa re
extbriaocmteadssa gnrnauzeadll ybyfr aonmimtahles laoncda l2e0n%v oirfo cnomlleecntetd(T waboloed1, )m. aTihnleys eusceodn saiss tfiarelmwooostd.e nInt iaredldyitoiofnb, ivoemrya ss,
rousmghallyl a4m0%ouonftsh aorf vheosnteedy fiareel dtackreonp sfr(otmhr enea-tfuoruer. tThhsea roenmly imlleitn,ewrahlse aetx,tcraocrtne,dt eloffcaalnlyd abraer lleoyam), 4a0n%d of
stones for the construction of huts (less than 1% of the extraction).
Sustainability2017,9,1041 9of21
biomassgrazedbyanimalsand20%ofcollectedwood,mainlyusedasfirewood. Inaddition,very
smallamountsofhoneyaretakenfromnature. Theonlymineralsextractedlocallyareloamandstones
fortheconstructionofhuts(lessthan1%oftheextraction).
Thelocalcommunityimports165kgofmaterialperpersonandyear. Thebulkofthis,80%,is
biomassintheformofseed, feedandfood. Foodmainlyconsistsofsugarandcookingoil. Other
importsaremineralmaterialssuchassalt,iron,cementandfertilizer.Aboutninekilogramsoffertilizer
perpersonperyearareimported,whichamountsto35kgperhectareoffarmedland(inindustrial
agriculturethisis100to200kgperhectare). Twelvekilogramsofartifacts(kitchenutensils,toolsand
clothes)andaboutthreekgoffossilfuelsareimportedperpersonandyear.
Exportsamounttoabout284kgperperson,accountingforjustunder10%ofthelocalextraction.
Exportsareabout40%unprocessedwoodandgrain. Furthermore,strawanddriedcowdungare
exportedasfuel. Quantitativelyinsignificant,butofeconomicimportance,istheexportofhoneyand
mudfurnaces. Forthelatter,clayisremovedlocallyandmixedwithimportedcementandprocessed
intosmallcookingstoves. Mostoftheexportedgoodsarebroughttonearbymarkets. Althoughthe
incomeislow,itisnecessarytoimportgoodsortofinancehealthcareandschooleducation.
Thestudyofthepercapitafoodsupplyshowsanintakebyhumansof2127kcal/cap/day[27].
AnestimateoftheenergyrequirementsbasedonFAOdataofkcal/kgbodymassfordifferentage
groups[43]andthebodymassperagegroupintheBashkuritvalleyshowsthat2250kcal/cap/day
are required. Thus, there is slightly too little food available compared to the requirements which
constitutesasituationoffoodscarcity.
Table1. Percapitamaterialflowsandconsumption(extractionplusimportsminusexports)forthe
Bashkuritvalleyinkgfreshweightin2012[27].
Category
Extraction Imports Exports Consumption
(kgperPersonandYear)
Biomass 3190 135 280 3045
Mineralmaterials 2 15 4 13
Fossilenergycarriers 0 3 0 3
Artefacts 0 12 0 12
Total 3192 165 284 3073
4.3. PrimaryEnergy,SocietalUsefulEnergyandHumanLabour
Day-to-daylifeintheBashkuritValleyisextremelylabour-intensive,asisclearfromastatement
fromWagaw,alocalfarmer: “Wedailystrugglewithnaturetofillourstomachsandthestomachsof
ourcattle. Evenintheheatofthesunshine,wedonotinterruptourwork,butprotectourheadswith
caps”([27],p. 98).
Whenpeopleareaskedabouttheculturalsignificanceofwork,onequicklyfindsthatworkis
closelylinkedtofoodprocurement. ThisisillustratedbythefrequentlyusedAmharicsaying“Yalsera
aybla”,whichmeans“nowork,nofood”. Subjectively,workcreatestwoopposingmeaningsforthe
inhabitants,dependingontheharvest. Ifthereisenoughfood,theresidentsareproudoftheirwork.
Ifthefoodisnotsufficient,theyfeelitasaburden.
If we examine human labour quantitatively, we base this analysis on functional time use
studies[44]. Thesestudiestreathumantimeasakeyresourceofsocialsystems. Asocialsystem’s
availabletimeperaveragedayischaracterizedby24hperdayandindividualmultipliedbypopulation
size. Thistimeisspentforfourdifferentfunctionalsubsystems: thepersonsystem(PS),thehousehold
system(HS),theeconomicsystem(ES)andthecommunitysystem(CS).Accordingtoliterature,the
timeinvestedintheeconomicsystemiswhatwerefertoaslabourtime[26].
Table 2 provides some impressions of daily routines and ascribes the activities to the four
functionalsubsystems.
Sustainability2017,9,1041 10of21
Table2.Dailyroutinesinachronologicalorderfromgettinguptogoingtobed—Duetothelowlevel
ofactivityoftheelderlytheyarenotconsideredinthisqualitativedescription(neverthelesstheirtime
useisincludedintheoveralltimeuseanalysis).
Hour DailyActivity
Mostpeoplegetuparound5:30a.m.Womenoftenriseearlierthanmen.Aftercompletingtheirpersonal
hygiene(PS),womenwalktofetchwater(HS),visitthenearbychurchtopray(CS),preparebreakfast,takecare
ofchildren,grindgrainsusingstones,anddootherdomesticchores(HS).Girlshelpthewomen(HS),visita
5:30 nearbychurchtosaytheirprayers(CS),cleanthecattlepen,preparedungcake,scareawaywildanimalsfrom
fieldsortraveltothemarkettosellfirewoodanddungcake(ES).Menfeedcattle,maintainfarmtools(ES),or
lookafterchildren(HS).Theboysfetchwater,mindtheyoungerchildren(HS),protectcropsfromwild
animals,traveltothemarketandfeedthecattleathome(ES).Theseactivitiesusuallyextendtobreakfasttime.
Exceptonfastingdays,breakfastistakenfrom7:30to8.00a.m.Afterbreakfast,womenmilkcows,cleancattle
pen,preparedungcakes,herdthecattle,walktothemarket,workinfarmfields,performwageworkor
handcraft(ES),participateinpublicmeetings,engageincommunalworks(CS),andpreparelunch(HS).Men
7:30
workinthefields,herdcattle,undertakewageworkorhandcrafting,gotothemarket(ES),andparticipatein
publicmeetingsandcommunalworks(CS).Schoolisopenintwoshifts,oneinthemorningandtheotherin
theafternoon.Somechildrenattendschoolafterbreakfast(PS),whileothersworkwithparents(ES).
12:30 Lunchisusuallytakenfrom12:30to1:30p.m.
Afterlunch,thewomenengageinherding,workinthefields,milkcows,performhandicraft(ES),collect
firewood,fetchwater,gotogrindingmills,careforchildren,preparedinner,andotherdomesticchores(HS),
visitrelativesandattendfestivals(CS).Menworkinthefields,gotothemarket,herd,undertakemaintenance
work,performwagework(ES),docommunalwork,attendpublicmeetings,visitrelatives,attendfestivals(CS)
1:30
andhaveaninfrequentleisurehour(PS).Thetimeafterlunchisschooltime(PS)forsomechildren,while
othersmindtheyoungerchildren,gotoagrindingmill,collectfirewood,performdomesticchores(HS),work
inthefields,herdcattle,gotothemarket(ES),andperformcommunalwork,visitrelatives,playgames,and
sometimesattendfestivities(CS).
Mostpeoplereturnfromoutdoorworkaround6:00p.m.Darknesssetsin,lampsarelit.Womenprepare
6:00 dinner,milkcows,andbreastfeedchildren(HS),whilethegirlsstudy(PS)andsomeofthemhelptheirmothers
(HS).Mencarryoutmaintenancework(ES),whileboysstudy(PS)andfeedcattleinthecompound(ES).
Dinnertimeisusuallyfrom8:00to9:00p.m.(earlierforyoungerchildren).Afterthat,marriedcouplesmay
takearestanddiscusstheday(PS)andprepareforthenextday(HS,ES).Womengrindgrainsusingstone
8:00
grinds,careforchildren(HS)andmakebaskets(ES).Somechildrenstudy,whileotherstakearestandhavea
conversation(PS).Withtheseactivities,peopleusuallyconcludetheirday.
10:00 Peoplegotosleepbetween10:00and11:30p.m.
In Bashkurit the annual average human labour time in the economic system of all persons,
whetheroldoryoung,isaboutfivehoursperdayandperson,mainlyinagriculture(includingmarket
walks, making baskets, and other smaller wage labour). In addition to the work in the economic
system, two and a half hours are spent for household chores and a little more than two hours are
spent for community affairs (work for shared infrastructure or care for neighbours, church visits
andmeetings). Thisleavesabout14hforsleeping,eating,bodyhygieneandleisure. Attheageof
sixyears,childrenworkfourhoursadayonaverage. Thegreatesttimedemandforwork,beitin
theeconomicorinthehouseholdsystem,ison25to50-year-oldadultswithovertenhoursaday,
withwomenmoreburdenedthanmen. Especiallytheagegroupof25to40-year-oldwomenhasless
thantenhoursforsleeping,eating,bodyhygieneandleisure(PS),menofthesameageelevenhours.
Comparedtootheragrariansocieties,thisisanextremelylowleveloftimeforpersonalreproduction
(PS).InNalang(Laos),asubsistenceeconomydominatedbyrain-fedricefarming,andinCampoBello
(Bolivia),aswiddenagriculturewithfishing,hunting,gatheringandraisingpoultry,theworkload
intheeconomicsystem(ES)isbetween2and3h(inBashkuritfivehours)andthetimeforpersonal
recreationis18h(inBashkurit14h)[27,45]. Inadditiontohumanlabour,oxenandcowsprovide
workforthefarmers. Thedomesticatedanimalsareusedforploughing,sowing,harvesting,threshing
andtransporting.
IntheBashkuritValley,peopleprovidearound650Gigajouleofusefulenergyperyearinthe
economicsystem(300Megajouleperpersonperyear;calculationisbasedonthehoursworkedand
assumptionsonthephysicalworkdeliveredperhourinaccordanceto[20]),theenergyprovidedby