how the British military communicated Afghanistan at home

276 Pages·2014·5.6 MB·English

WestminsterResearch
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Military media machine: how the British military
communicated Afghanistan at home

Rikke Bjerg Jensen

Faculty of Media, Arts and Design

This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of
Westminster. © The Author, 2014.

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MILITARY MEDIA MACHINE
HOW THE BRITISH MILITARY
COMMUNICATED AFGHANISTAN AT HOME

RIKKE BJERG JENSEN

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of the University of Westminster
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

April 2014
ABSTRACT

Military Media Machine is an investigation into the media management structure, and
the increasingly dynamic communication processes, developed and implemented by the
UK military. It explores – rather than explains – the proliferation in military media
facilitation within defence, at a time when the British armed forces are concluding their
nearly 13-year campaign in Afghanistan. During this extraordinary period of strategic
pressure, telling a story of success has become a key factor in the military’s
understanding of their own communication function. So this thesis suggests. It does so
by demonstrating how strategic narratives are constructed to distance the soldier and the
military institution from the war itself. It shows how the military shift from a combat to
a ‘train and advice’ role has challenged the ways in which this distinction is upheld and
communicated. This has a wider applicability too, as it testifies to the increasing
conflation of military goals and political objectives.

Using access to UK and NATO field settings and doctrinal discussions, the study
documents a growing presence of media theory at the heart of military doctrine. It
demonstrates how the British military have engaged large (and not necessarily efficient)
resources to managing the story as part of their Afghanistan exit strategy. This includes
new communication initiatives, online engagement procedures, information doctrine and
media training facilitation. Thesis findings indicate that the purpose of these initiatives
is to influence target audiences through the ‘means’ of the media. They paint a picture of
an organisation that is increasingly engaged in catering to, and producing material for,
the media.

Media studies have generally not engaged in military communication research. Similarly,
the military have shown little interest in involving external partners in their
communication function. The thesis positions itself at the heart of this discussion. It
recognises that new frameworks of understanding are needed; frameworks that do not
attempt to improve the effectiveness of military messaging but which examine it and
consider the practice. Unlike most work carried out in military academies the purpose of
the study has not been to develop doctrine. Rather, by taking on an inside-out approach
(as opposed to an outside-in approach) the thesis examines a fast-growing aspect of
communication research that has so far been poorly documented within media and
communications studies.

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Contents

Acronyms v

Images & Tables vii

Acknowledgements ix

Published Material x

Declaration of Authorship xi

Introduction: Why Communicating Afghanistan Matters 1

BACKGROUND & CONTEXT

1 Communicating Militaries: Three Debates 17
Accountability 18
Military Culture 27
War Amongst the People 36
Conclusions 44

2 Historical Traces: Towards the Green Book 48
The Falklands: New Bearings 49
Media War in the Gulf 55
Towards Afghanistan & the Green Book 61
Conclusions 66

3 Methodology: My Journey through the Field 68
Ideas behind the Methodology 68
A Question of Access 75
Ethnographic Traces 81
Summary 85

THE STRUCTURES & VEHICLES OF MILITARY COMMUNICATION

4 The Principles of Influence 88
The Function of Doctrine 89
The Role of Strategic Communication 96
Targeting Audiences 109
Conclusions 121

5 Organising Military Communication 124
Three Levels of Military Communication 125
Military Objectives 138
Conclusions 146
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MANAGING PERCEPTIONS: AFGHANISTAN DISCOURSES

6 Telling Afghanistan at Home 150
Why Communicating Security Matters 151
Strategic Narratives & the Story of Success 155
Counter-Narratives 171
Conclusions 180

7 New Media, New Narrative & Afghanistan 183
Online Communication & Counter-Narratives 184
Why Communicating Human(e) Rights Matters 199
Conclusions 211

CONCLUSIONS

8 Conclusion: Military Media Machine 214
Revisiting the Field: Original Contributions 215
Military Communication Research and its Wider Applicability 220
Limitations of the Military Media Machine 228

Bibliography 233

Appendices 253

iv
Acronyms

ANA Afghan National Army
ANP Afghan National Police
ANSF Afghan National Security Force
ARRC Allied Rapid Reaction Corps
CA Comprehensive Approach
CCT Combat Camera Team
CIMIC Civil-military Cooperation
CoG Centre of Gravity
DCMC Defence Crisis Management Centre
DCMO Defence Crisis Management Organisation
DCP Directorate of Communication Planning
D Def PR Directorate of Defence Public Relations
DfID Department for International Development
DMC Directorate Media and Communication
DMOC Defence Media Operations Centre
D News Director of News
D Op Directorate of Operational Planning
DPO Defence Press Office
DSMC Defence School of Media and Communications
EBA Effects Based Approach
FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office
FLC Front Line Commander
FLMP Front Line Media Pools
FOB Forward Operating Base
FOI Freedom of Information
IED Improvised Explosive Device
IFOR Implementation Force
IO Influence Operations
ISAF International Security Assistance Force
JMOT Joint Media Operations Team
JOA Joint Operations Area
JTFHQ Joint Task Force Headquarters
KLE Key Leader Engagement
LTT Lines To Take
MMG Media Management Group
MOD Ministry of Defence
v
MOG(V) Media Operations Group (Volunteer)
MPT Media Production Team
MRT Media Response Team
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OPSEC Operations Security
PAO Public Affairs Office
PB Patrol Base
PIC Press Information Centre
P Info Public Information
PJHQ Permanent Joint Headquarter
PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team
SACEUR Supreme Allied Command Europe
SimPress Simulated Press
StratCom Strategic Communication
TAPIOs Territorial Army Pool of Information Officers
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Images & Figures

Table 3.1 Overview of military documents 70

Table 3.2 Overview of field settings, interviews 74
and email correspondence

Figure 4.1 The United Kingdom Information Strategy 90

Image 5.1 Press Information Centre (PIC), exercise scenario 132
Loyal Ledger/Loyal Mariner ’09 (ARRC, NATO)

Image 5.2 Combat Camera Team Videographer at Work 133
in Afghanistan (2010)

Image 6.1 Media skills training (ARRC: March 2009) 163

Image 7.1 Screenshot of UK Defence Social Media Hub. 193

Image 7.2 Handover of Lashkar Gah to Afghan Forces 198

Image 7.3 Afghanistan Flag during Handover of Lashkar Gah to 198
Afghan Forces

Image 7.4 Soldier talks to Children while on Patrol in Afghanistan 202

Image 7.5 Afghan Girl with British Soldier 204

Image 7.6 Soldier Talks with Local Children in Afghanistan 204

Image 7.7 ANA Soldier on Patrol with British Soldier in Operation 206
Omid Char.

Image 7.8 Afghan and British Soldier 206

Image 7.9 Combat Camera Team photographer in Afghanistan 210
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Acknowledgements

This thesis would not have been possible without the assistance, cooperation and support
of a number of people. These people all deserve huge thanks. I am particularly grateful to
those who took part in the study: military personnel and practitioners who gave of their
time to respond to my, sometimes many(!), questions; military insiders who granted me
access to field settings; communications and conflict scholars who invited me to take part
in specialised seminars and workshops; and media professionals who helped substantiate
the research. Without their willingness the study would never have taken off.

Needless to say, I am hugely thankful to Professor Jean Seaton, my Director of Studies,
who has not only guided me through the research but stimulated discussion. Knowing that
she has always been only a phone call away has been reassuring and invaluable at times
when I have doubted my own judgement. If it was not for her I would never have been
brave enough to take on this project. I would also like to thank my second supervisor Dr
Anthony McNicholas for his excellent support at crucial points in the research process.
Finally, my family and friends also deserve thanks for their support and for listening to
my constant chatter about Afghanistan.

The research is funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and
the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation.
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Published Material

Parts of the material included in this thesis have been submitted for publication:

Jensen, Rikke Bjerg, ’Managing Perceptions: Strategic communication & the story of
success in Afghanistan’, in Beatrice de Graaf et al. (eds.), Shaping Societies for War:
Public support, strategic narratives and the war in Afghanistan, 2001 until present
(London: Routledge, 2014 – forthcoming).

Jensen, Rikke Bjerg, ’NATO, Libya & the Media’ in Kjell Engelbrekt et al. (eds.),
Lessons from Libya: NATO’s 2011 Military Campaign in Context (Swedish National
Defence College, Stockholm: Routledge, 2013).

Jensen, Rikke Bjerg, ‘Perceptions of War: Afghanistan, Military, Influence’, in Silvia
Branea and Valentina Marinescu (eds.), Communication and Crises (Bucharest:
University of Bucharest Publishing House, 2013).

Jensen, Rikke Bjerg, ‘Military Media Operations in Modern Wars’, Global Media and
Communication, Vol 7, No 3, December 2011, pp. 193-9.

Jensen, Rikke Bjerg, ‘British military media strategies: New wars – new ways’ in Nico
Carpentier et al. (eds.), Communicative approaches to politics and ethics in Europe
(Tartu: Tartu University Press, 2009), pp. 85-96.

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