Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities - Honey Acres

28 Pages·2002·0.18 MB·English

Honey–Health and
Therapeutic Qualities
Provided by the National Honey Board
Introduction Persia and Egypt3,4 and Hippocrates 460-357 BC.2
Clearly, honey was ubiquitous and our ancestors’ use
Honey is a popular sweetener throughout the world.
of it for medicinal purposes was universal.
According to an Associated Marketing survey conduct-
Honey was prescribed for a variety of uses including
ed for the National Honey Board in 1997, almost 77
baldness, contraception and as a wound treatment.
percent of U.S. households use honey along with other
Frequently, honey
sweeteners and syrups and 45 percent
From ancient times, honey was not was mixed with
of them consider honey a good value
only used as a natural sweetener herbs, grains and
because it is “natural/good for you/bet-
but also as a healing agent. other botanicals
ter for you than sugar.” Overall, honey
from the geograph-
has a positive profile with nearly 62
ic area. Table 1 summarizes some of the ways honey
percent of users “especially liking” it for its taste and
has been used through the ages. Uses that have contin-
flavor, 24 percent because it is natural and 16 percent
ued into modern folk medicine include treatment for
because it is good for you.1
coughs and sore throats, lotus honey for eye diseases in
From ancient times, honey was not only used as a
India, infected leg ulcers in Ghana, earaches in Nigeria,
natural sweetener but also as a healing agent. Many
topical treatment of measles in the eyes to prevent
health-promoting and curative properties attributed to
corneal scarring, gastric ulcers and constipation.5
it are the basis for some traditional folk medicine
treatments throughout the world today. Of the con-
20th Century practices and research
sumers who use honey, 93 percent consider honey a
Much of the literature in the early part of the 20th
healthful product, recognizing it as a pure, natural
Century contains reports of antimicrobial and wound
product. Fifteen percent think of it as a good home
healing properties of honey. In 1919, Sackett reported
remedy.1
that antibacterial activity increased in diluted honey.11
Russian soldiers during World War I used honey to
History of honey as medicine
prevent infections in wounds and to accelerate
Stone age paintings in several locations dating to
healing.12 Germans used honey and cod liver oil for
6000 BC or earlier depict honey hunting, documenting
ulcerations, burns, fistulas and boils in addition to a
human use of honey for at least 8000 years. References
honey salve (mixed with egg yolk and flour) for boils
to honey as a medicine are found in ancient scrolls,
and sores.9
tablets and books—Sumarian clay tablets estimated to
In a 1992 review by Molan, it was noted that in 1937,
be 6200 BC, Egyptian papyri dated from 1900-1250
Dold, et al. began intensive study on the antimicrobial
BC, Veda (Hindu scripture) about 5000 years old,2 the
activity of honey and called it “inhibine”.11 In 1963,
Holy Koran,3,4 the Talmud, both the old and new testa-
White, et al, identified “inhibine” as hydrogen perox-
ments of the Bible, sacred books of India, China,
ide, which is formed by the glucose oxidase system.13 active against gram negative bacteria and higher fungi
Throughout the 1930s, there were numerous medical while sugar solutions did not have the antimicrobial
journal reports on the effectiveness of honey in clearing activity.32,42 In addition, research on Salmonella,
bacterial infection in wounds. Intensive laboratory stud- Escherichia coli, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and
ies for the treatment of infections became available in Penicillium chrysogenum showed honey to have more
the mid-1940s with the medical profession taking note pronounced inhibitory effect than individual
of the value of honey. sugars.42,43
Table 1 - Selected Historical Uses of Honey 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
However, the intro- Other aspects of
duction of antibiotics Source Use honey and its use in
shifted the focus to various clinical con-
Hippocrates (460-357 BC) Wound healing
synthetic and mass- ditions have also
Celsius (circa 25 AD) Laxative; cure for diarrhea and upset stomach;
produced treatments. been investigated.
for coughs and sore throats; to agglutinate
During the 1930s, wounds; eye diseases For example, the car-
1940s and 1950s, bohydrate absorption
Ancient Greeks, Topical antiseptic for sores, wounds and skin
researchers were doc- Romans and Chinese ulcers from a commercial
umenting the wound Aristotle (384-322 BC) Refers to pale honey as a “good salve for sore brand of honey
healing properties of eyes and wounds” (blossom honeydew
honey, leading to a Dioscorides (circa 50 AD) States that pale yellow honey from Attica was the honey) in Greece was
best honey, being “good for all rotten and hollow
treatment still in prac- studied in 20 normal,
ulcers” as well as for sunburn, inflammation of
tice today.14,15,16,17,18 throat and tonsils and as a cure for coughs white subjects. The
The past two decades results of a breath
Chinese Prevent scars; remove discoloration and freckles
have brought a resur- and improve the general appearance of the skin; hydrogen test,
abscesses and hard swelling or callosity of skin;
gence of interest in reports of loose
for cancer applied to inflamed wounds to reduce
learning more about the pain and lessen the drawing; diluted honey stools within 10
used for inflammation of the eye; treat small-pox;
antimicrobial and hours of consump-
remove worms and for diseases of the mouth and
wound healing prop- throat tion of the test
erties of honey. doses of honey vs.
Culpepper’s Complete Herbal Many remedies, e.g., uses of garden rue for
Reports from different (17th Century) “worms of the belly” glucose and fructose
parts of the world Sir John Hill (1759) Book on “The Virtues Of Honey In Preventing mixture demonstrat-
generally affirmed the Many Of The Worst Disorders, And In The ed carbohydrate mal-
Cure Of Several Others”
effectiveness of honey absorption. The
van Keetal (1892) Antibacterial activity reported
in treating various researchers suggested
wounds, burns and American Pharmaceutical For general coughs – mixture of barley water, that fructose was the
Association (1916-1935) honey and the juice of one lemon; honey of rose
serious infections. 6,12, malabsorbed carbo-
with borax for treating sore throats and skin
19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32, ulcers hydrate leading to
33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41 U.S. Medical Archives Many applications and prescriptions; prevention the laxative effect of
Research objectives of infection in wounds honey. This study
have included com- provides scientific
parisons of honey wound dressings to other treatments support for the common Greek practice of treating
as well as identification of more effective honeys. Other constipation with honey.44,45
research focused on the pathogens against which honey In recent years, with the advent of functional foods,
acted and the mechanisms by which it acts. In studies research expanded to include the health promoting
that compared it to a solution of sugar with similar aspects of honey. A number of studies on the phyto-
osmotic pressures, honey was shown to be particularly chemical and antioxidant content of honey and its
2 - Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities
impact on gastrointestinal health and energy metabo- tributed by pollens, nectar or by the bees them-
lism have identified potential new roles for honey selves.46,47,48,49,50
in diets. Bees use a variety of plants to create honey and con-
sequently, the nutritional profile of honey varies
Composition of Honey
accordingly. Some studies have been done on honeys
Nutrients from different botanical origins to evaluate the differ-
Honey is a super- ences in sugar con-
Table 2 - Nutrient Values of Honey51
saturated sugar solu- tent,52 amino acid
tion with approxi- Nutrient Average amount per Average amount content53 and other
1 Tbsp serving (21g) per 100g
mately 17.1 percent components. These
Water 3.62g 17.10g
water. Fructose is the compositional differ-
Calories 64 304
predominant sugar at Total Carbohydrate 17.46g 82.40g ences can influence
38.5 percent, followed Fructose 8.16g 38.50g the value of a specific
Glucose 6.57g 31.00g
by glucose at 31 per- honey for medicinal
Maltose 1.53g 7.20g
cent. Disaccharides, Sucrose 0.32g 1.50g or health-promoting
Other carbohydrates 0.85g 4.00g
trisaccharides and purposes.
Dietary Fiber 0.04g 0.20g
oligosaccharides are Total Fat 0 0
Cholesterol 0 0
present in much Phytochemicals
Total Protein 0.06g 0.30g
smaller quantities. Ash 0.04g 0.20g In recent years,
Vitamins
Besides carbohydrates, research has identi-
(data not available for Biotin
honey contains small and Vitamin B-12) fied a number of
Thiamin 0 0
amounts of protein, phytochemicals in
Riboflavin 0.01mg 0.04mg
(including enzymes), Niacin 0.03mg 0.12mg various foods,
Pantothenic acid 0.01mg 0.07mg
vitamins and minerals. including honey.
Vitamin B-6 0.01mg 0.02mg
Honey yields 64 calo- Vitamin B-12 0 0 Phytochemicals are
Folate 0.42mcg 2.00mcg
ries per tablespoon, substances in plants.
Vitamin C 0.11mg 0.50mg
making it a more con- Vitamin A 0 0 It is now recognized
Vitamin D 0 0
centrated source of that many phyto-
Vitamin E 0 0
energy than other Vitamin K 0 0 chemicals can have
Minerals
common sweeteners. health-promoting
Calcium 1.27mg 6.00mg
(See Table 2.) Phosphorus 0.85mg 4.00mg activities.
While the amino Sodium 0.85mg 4.00mg Antioxidants, a major
Potassium 11.02mg 52.00mg
acid content is minor, group of phytochem-
Iron 0.09mg 0.42mg
the broad spectrum of Zinc 0.05mg 0.22mg icals, reduce the risk
Magnesium 0.42mg 2.00mg
approximately 18 of tissue oxidative
Selenium 0.17mg 0.80mg
essential and non- Copper 0.01mg 0.04mg damage.
Manganese 0.02mg 0.08mg
essential amino acids Honey is known to
present in honey is be rich in both enzy-
unique and varies by floral source. Proline is the pri- matic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, including cata-
mary amino acid with lysine being the second most lase, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and alkaloids.46,54,55 A
prevalent. Other amino acids found in honey include unique flavonoid, pinocembrin, is present in high quan-
phenylalanine, tyrosine, glutamic and aspartic acids. tities in propolis and honey. Other flavonoids found in
The glutamic acid is a product of the glucose oxidase honey are pinobanksin, chrysin, galangin, quercetin,
reaction.13 Proline and other amino acids are con- luteolin and kaempferol. Different honeys have differ-
Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities - 3
ent flavonoid profiles, depending on the floral source oxide content has been used to determine the hydrogen
for the nectar. Similarly, the ascorbic acid content of peroxide level of honey, formerly called the “inhibine
honey ranges from 0.5-6.5mg/100g with an average of number”.62
2.4mg/100g or 5mg/ml.56 However, some specific vari-
eties of honey have been reported to contain as much as Organic acids
75-150mg ascorbic acid per 100g, while most honey Organic acids contribute a slight tartness to the flavor
contain less than 5mg/100g.57 of honey and add to its antimicrobial properties.
In vitro experiments on the inhibition of oxidation in Gluconic acid, the major organic acid, is the product of
a model system using various honeys demonstrated a the enzymatic glucose oxidase reaction. It has been
wide variation in the antioxidant capacity among floral shown to increase calcium absorption.63 Honey con-
sources. Honey made by bees fed herbal extracts exhib- tains many other organic acids—butyric, acetic, formic,
ited greater antioxidant activity than normal honey.58 In lactic, succinic, malic, citric, maleic, oxalic and pyroglu-
general, higher antioxidant content was found in darker tamic. As with many other components in honey, the
honeys and in honeys with higher water organic acid
In general, higher antioxidant
content.59 Some honeys, such as buck- content varies
content was found in darker honeys
wheat honey, are comparable to fruits and according to the
and in honeys with higher water
vegetables, such as orange pulp, broccoli floral source.46,64,65
content.59
and sweet peppers, in their antioxidant
content on a weight basis.
Other relevant properties (pH, osmotic
Enzymes pressure, water activity)
Honey contains a number of enzymes including glu- Honey possesses a number of properties that
cose oxidase, invertase, diastase (amylase), catalase and contribute to its various roles in human health.
acid phosphatase.46 The glucose oxidase reaction pro- Actual values vary by floral source.
duces glutamic acid and hydrogen peroxide from glu-
cose. It also produces glucolactone that equilibrates Acidic environment (average values)51
with gluconic acid. The hydrogen peroxide contributes • Low pH 3.9 Range 3.4-6.1
to the antimicrobial properties of honey. • Acids 0.57% Range: 0.017-1.17%
Invertase converts sucrose to fructose and glucose. It (primarily gluconic acid)
is added to the nectar by the bees as either gluco-inver-
tase or fructo-invertase.60 Some invertase is found in High osmotic pressure and low water activity Aw51
honey and may continue its activity in extracted honey. • 0.5 (16% water) to 0.6 (18.3% water) in the
However, high temperatures will inactivate it. 40-100 °F (4-37 °C) temperature range,
Diastase (amylase) splits starch chains to randomly depending on its water content, temperature,
produce dextrins and maltose. Originating from bees floral source and other factors.
and pollen,46 it is added during the ripening of nectar.
Viscosity, which decreases rapidly as temperature rises;
The diastase content varies according to floral source.
1% moisture is equivalent to about 3.5 °C in its effect
Long storage periods and exposure to high tempera-
on viscosity.51
tures for a prolonged period of time inactivate diastase.
Researchers recommend 85 °C for 5 minutes to dena- Antimicrobial Activity
ture diastase in honey; also a pH outside the optimum
Mechanisms
range of 5.3-5.6 will decrease diastase activity.61
A number of characteristics of honey contribute to its
Catalase, found in small amounts in honey, produces
antimicrobial activity. The enzymatic glucose oxidation
oxygen and water from hydrogen peroxide. The inverse
reaction and some of its physical properties are consid-
relationship between catalase activity and hydrogen per-
4 - Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities
ered to be the major factors. Other factors include tribute significantly to antibacterial activity:
high osmotic pressure/low water activity (Aw), low pinocembrin, terpenes, benzyl alcohol, 3,5-
pH/acidic environment, low protein content, high dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzoic acid (syringic acid),
carbon to nitrogen ratio, low redox potential due to methyl-3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzoate (methyl
the high content of reducing sugars, a viscosity that syringate), 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid, 2-
limits dissolved oxygen and other chemical agents/ hydroxy-3-phenylpropionic acid, 2-hydroxybenzoic
phytochemicals.66 acid and 1,4-dihydroxybenzene. Support for the
Honey researcher, Peter Molan, PhD, has written an existence of non-peroxide antimicrobial factors
extensive review of the research on the antimicrobial comes from reports of continued activity after
factors in honey67,68 and has summarized the key aspects honey has been treated with heat, thereby
of his research on a Web site at the University of inactivating the glucose oxidase, and after honey
Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand:69 has been treated with catalase to remove the
• Honey is a supersaturated sugar solution with a low peroxide activity.
water activity (Aw), which means that there is little Not all honeys are created equal in antimicrobial
water available to support the growth of bacteria activity due to differences in levels of peroxide produc-
and yeast. Many species of bacteria will grow if the tion and non-peroxide factors, which vary by floral
Aw is between 0.94-0.99 and the Aw of ripened source and processing. The presence of metal ions,
honey (0.56-0.62) does not support the growth of ascorbic acid and catalase from the nectar can destroy
yeast. Diluted honey with a higher Aw will not be the hydrogen peroxide. Heat and light can destroy the
effective against those species of bacteria that grow glucose oxidase enzyme. The original method for meas-
most rapidly at an Aw of 0.99. uring antibacterial activity was to determine the “inhib-
• The natural acidity of honey will inhibit many ine number” defined as the degree of dilution (done in
pathogens. The minimum pH value for some a stepwise fashion) to which a honey will retain its anti-
species that commonly infect wounds ranges from bacterial activity. Most studies now report antimicrobial
4.0-4.5. Dilution of honey, especially with body activity as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC),
fluids, will raise the pH and lessen the antibacterial the minimum concentration necessary for complete
effectiveness that results from its acidity. inhibition of growth.69 Studies on large numbers of
• Glucose oxidase is an enzyme secreted by the bees honey samples show a wide range of activity and many
to form honey from nectar. It converts glucose in with only a low level of activity.70,71
the presence of water and oxygen to gluconic acid While there are insufficient data to clearly identify
and hydrogen peroxide. The resulting acidity and the antibacterial activity of all honeys, there is some
hydrogen peroxide preserve and sterilize the honey evidence of high levels in honeydew honey (a sweet liq-
during the ripening process. Full-strength honey uid excreted by sucking insects72 which tap into leaves)
has negligible amounts of hydrogen peroxide and from the conifer forests of the mountainous regions of
active glucose oxidase. Transition ions and ascorbic central Europe69 and manuka honey (honey from the
acids rapidly decompose hydrogen peroxide to Leptospermum species) from New Zealand.67,70,73 In a
oxygen and water while the low pH inactivates the study by Willex, et al, manuka honey had the highest
enzyme. However, dilution of honey results in a levels of non-peroxide activity among 26 different types
2,500-50,000 increase in enzyme activity and a of honey from various floral sources. It strongly inhibit-
“slow-release” antiseptic that does not damage ed two strains of bacteria (Escherichia coli and
tissue. Staphylococcus aureus).74
• The peroxide-generating system does not account An in vitro study compared the antibacterial action of
for all of the observed antibacterial activity. Several a pasture honey (a polyfloral honey in which the nectar
substances with antibacterial activity are found in comes from various clovers and pasture weeds such as
honey in small quantities that are too low to con- thistle and dandelion) and manuka honey on coagulase-
Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities - 5
positive S. aureus strains from infected wounds. The and light.69 Testing for the antibacterial component in
isolates showed little difference in their sensitivity to manuka honey, called the “Unique Manuka Factor”
both honeys. The pasture honey with a higher peroxide (UMF), uses a standard laboratory procedure to assess
generation and the manuka honey with non-peroxidal antibacterial activity and compare it with the potency of
antibacterial activity were both effective at low concen- a standard antiseptic (phenol or carbolic) solution. The
trations (3-4 percent v/v and 2-3 percent v/v, respec- number rating for the honey is the percent solution that
tively).75 matches its potency.
Table 3 - Infections Caused by Bacterial Pathogens That Are Sensitive
Researchers evaluat- Thus, an active
to the Antibacterial Activity of Honey67
ed crude honey from manuka honey with a
different regions in Infection Pathogen rating of 10 is equiv-
Egypt for antimicro- alent to a 10 percent
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
bial effects. While all solution of phenol in
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
samples had similar its antibacterial
Diarrhea, septicemia, urinary infections, Escherichia coli
effects on gram nega- potency.85
wound infections
tive and gram positive
Ear infections, meningitis, respiratory Haemophilus influenzae
bacteria in concentra- Pathogens sensi-
infections, sinusitis
tions as low as 6.25 Pneumonia Klebsiella pneumoniae tive to honey
percent, they were Meningitis Listeria monocytogenes Research has
ineffective against Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis demonstrated that
Candida albicans and Infected animal bites Pasteurella multocida many bacterial
Aspergillus niger. Septicemia, urinary infections, wound Proteus species pathogens and fungi
Fractions extracted infections are sensitive to the
Urinary infections, wound infections Pseudomonas aeruginosa
from the honey were antimicrobial activity
Diarrhea Salmonella species
also evaluated for their of honey. Table 3
Septicemia Salmonella cholerae-suis
antimicrobial activity. lists infections that
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Of the four fractions, are caused by
Wound infections Salmonella typhimurium
only ethylacetate pathogens that are
Septicemia, wound infections Serratia marcescens
honey extract was sensitive to honey
Dysentery Shigella species
effective against bacte- and Table 4a summa-
Abscesses, boils, carbuncles, impetigo, Staphylococcus aureus
ria, Candida and rizes honey-sensitive
wound infections
molds. Further study pathogens and the
Urinary infections Streptococcus faecalis
of this extract in an Dental caries Streptococcus mutans lowest effective con-
ointment base Ear infections, meningitis, pneumonia, Streptococcus pneumoniae centration (percent
revealed that the sinusitis v/v) of honey report-
ingredients in the base Ear infections, impetigo, puerperal fever, Streptococcus pyogenes ed to exhibit antibac-
influenced its release rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, sore throat, terial activity. Table
and its stability was wound infections 4b summarizes the
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
dependent on both antimicrobial effect
temperature and the of honey on fungi.
base.76 A recent study documented the sensitivity of multire-
Numerous other studies document the variability in sistant strains of Burkholderia cepacia to manuka honey
antimicrobial activity among honeys.77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84 To at concentrations below 6 percent (v/v). B. cepacia causes
assure the effectiveness of a specific honey for use as an pulmonary infections in cystic fibrosis and chronic
antimicrobial agent, its activity should be assayed and granulomatous disease patients as well as bacteremia,
storage conditions monitored to limit exposure to heat urinary tract infections and wound infections in hospi-
6 - Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities
talized patients. It is a natural inhabitant of soil, water oxide antibacterial activity at a concentration of 5 per-
and vegetation and has been associated with foot lesions cent. However, a clinical trial with a small number of
in soldiers after training in swampy waters. Suggested subjects did not demonstrate the effectiveness of manu-
clinical applications for treating B. cepacia with honey ka honey on H. pylori. Other research has focused on
include honey aerosols as an adjunct to antibiotic ther- mechanisms by which honey can protect and heal gas-
apy and topically for superficial infections and wounds.86 tric mucosa through the stimulation of blood supply, an
anti-inflammatory
Table 4a - Summary of Honey Concentrations Reported to Inhibit the
Clinical action related to the
Growth of Selected Bacterial Species67
conditions that antioxidant proper-
respond to Concentration Concentration Concentration ties present in honey,
of Honey for of Honey for of Honey for
treatment with Bacteria Complete Complete Partial and the stimulation
honey Microbicidal Inhibition of Inhibition of of growth of new
Action (% by vol.) Growth (% by vol.) Growth (% by vol.)
Historically, honey epithelial cells.87,88
has been used to treat Alcaligenes species 10-100* Infantile gastroen-
Alcaligenes faecalis 7.4
a number of clinical teritis and diarrhea
Bacillus species 50
conditions. Recent are usually treated
Bacillus anthracis 2.5 1.3-100*
research on gastroin- with a rehydrating
Bacillus cereus 17-100
testinal disorders, glucose and elec-
Bacillus cereus var. mycoides 17-100* 8
candidosis, tinea and Bacillus pumilus 1.3 1.3-25* 8-25 trolyte solution. The
ophthalmological Bacillus stearothermophilus 42* glucose aids in the
disorders has been Bacillus subtilis [50] 10*-100* 5-25 absorption of elec-
Citrobacter freundii 3.6-10*
conducted to confirm trolytes and the
Corynebacterium diphtheriae 5-17 2.5-25
the efficacy of honey uptake of water.
Edwardsiella tarda 99
treatments. When honey at 5
Escherichia coli 7.4-99 0.25*-100* 0.7-17
percent (v/v) concen-
Haemophilus influenza 10
Ulcer/Gastritis/
Klebsiella species 10* tration replaced the
Diarrhea
Klebsiella pneumoniae 15-20 10-100* 40 glucose in rehydra-
Support for using
Listeria monocytogenes £25-30 tion fluid, the dura-
honey as a treatment Micrococcus species 10*
tion of the diarrhea
for peptic ulcers and Micrococcus luteus 10*-42*
was shortened in
gastritis comes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis 100 4.5 1.2
patients with bacteri-
Neisseria species 10*
traditional folklore
al gastroenteritis
Proteus species 10*-20 5
and from numerous
Proteus mirabilis 30 3.6-100* 1.4-5 compared to a con-
reports in modern
Streptococcus pyogenes 0.6 0.6-100* 0.7-10 trol group on stan-
times.5 The discovery
Streptococcus salivarius 25* dard therapy. In
of the role of Streptomyces species 25
patients with viral
Helicobacter pylori as a Vibrio cholerae 17-20
diarrhea, the dura-
causative factor in Vibrio cholerae (proteus) 17
tion was neither
peptic ulcers led to *Signifies active concentration is lower because honey is diluted by diffusion in agar.
shortened nor
Brackets signify completion of inhibition listed as “sensitive to honey.”
research on the anti-
lengthened, confirm-
bacterial activity of honey as the explanation for its
ing that the response was due to the antibacterial activi-
therapeutic action. Research confirmed that H. pylori
ty of honey. Honey was shown to be as effective as glu-
was sensitive to honey with a median level of antibac-
cose in rehydration. Like glucose, honey aids in the
terial activity due to hydrogen peroxide at concentra-
uptake of sodium and water. In addition, fructose, the
tions of 20 percent and to manuka honey with non-per-
predominant sugar in honey, promotes potassium and
Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities - 7
additional water uptake without increasing sodium Tinea
uptake. Besides the antibacterial activity, honey may Cutaneous or superficial mycoses, or tineas such as
promote the repair of damaged intestinal mucosa, stim- ringworm and athletes foot, caused through infection
ulate the growth of new tissues and work as an anti- by fungi called dermaphytes (Deuteromycontina) are
inflammatory agent.5,87 common but very difficult to treat. Frequently, a con-
Further research investigated the sensitivity of gas- comitant bacterial infection exists due to poor host
troenteritis-causing immunity. The
Table 4b - Summary of the Concentration of Various Honeys That Have
bacteria to pasture antimicrobial proper-
Been Reported to Inhibit the Growth of Selected Fungi Species67
honey with hydrogen ties of honey offer
peroxide activity and Concentration Concentration Concentration the potential to treat
of Honey for of Honey for of Honey for
to manuka honey with Fungi Complete Complete Partial both the fungal and
non-peroxide activity Microbicidal Inhibition of Inhibition of bacterial infections.
Action (% by vol.) Growth (% by vol.) Growth (% by vol.)
as well as to an artifi- Research on two
cial honey (i.e., a sugar Aspergillus flavus 60-75 25 types of honey—a
Aspergillus fumigatus 3.1
solution that mimics pasture honey with
Aspergillus niger 75 25
the composition of average antibacterial
Aspergillus parasiticus 60
honey). Both the pas- activity due to hydro-
Candida albicans 100 1.6-100*
ture honey and the gen peroxide activity
Candida psuedotropicalis 10
manuka honey exhib- Candida reukaufii 50 and a manuka honey
ited bacteriostatic Candida stellatoidea 50 with an average level
(prevention of growth) Candida tropicalis 50 of non-peroxide anti-
Penicillium spp 3.1
and bactericidal bacterial activity—
Penicillium chrysogenum 75 25
(killing of bacteria) were investigated for
Saccharomyces spp [50]
activity. At 4-8 percent their anti-fungal
(v/v), the pasture *Signifies active concentration is lower because honey is diluted by diffusion in agar. properties against
Brackets signify completion of inhibition listed as “sensitive to honey.”
honey was bacteriosta- clinical isolates of
tic and at 5-10 percent (v/v) bactericidal. The manuka seven species of dermaphytes. Results demonstrated
honey required slightly higher concentrations of that growth was inhibited by the hydrogen peroxide in
honey—5-11 percent (v/v) for bacteriostatis and 8-15 the pasture honey and by the non-peroxide activity in
percent (v/v) for bactericide. The artificial honey was the manuka honey. More honey was needed to inhibit
only bacteriostatic at 20-30 percent (v/v), illustrating some of the dermaphytes than is needed to inhibit bac-
that the antibacterial activity of honey was not just teria. However, less dilution by body fluids is likely with
related to acidity and osmotic effect.7 a tinea.7
Candidosis Ophthalmologic Disorders
Candidosis, the vaginal yeast infection caused by Honey has been used since ancient times to treat eye
Candida albicans, may be treatable with honey. Research disorders. Numerous reports from around the world
using honey distillates and clinical isolates demonstrat- detail the use of honey to treat blepharitis (inflamma-
ed that the honey distillates were comparable to com- tion of the eyelids), catarrhal conjunctivitis, keratitis
mercial antimycotic preparations in their ability to (inflammation of the cornea) and various ailments/
inhibit Candida.89 Other research found 0.1 and 0.2 mL injuries to the cornea as well as chemical and thermal
of volatile oil from Hungarian honey was inhibitory as burns to the eye. In general, treatment is successful in
well.82 achieving remission or stopping the progression of the
disease. Honey is usually applied as an ointment. In a
study with 102 patients who had various eye disorders
8 - Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities
that did not respond to conventional treatment, 85 per- cereus was evaluated. Results demonstrated that hydro-
cent experienced improvement and the other 15 per- gen peroxide as well as non-peroxide components such
cent had no further deterioration when treated with as antioxidants contributed to the inhibition of growth
honey. The only adverse reaction reported was a tran- of S. sonnei, L. monocytogenes and S. aureus. In general,
sient stinging sensation and redness in the eye shortly the darker honeys, which contain more antioxidants,
after the honey was applied.5 were more inhibitory. Based on this study, it appears
Veterinary Table 5 - Honey Inoculation Studies66
applications
Species Temperature (∞C) Survival Time Reference
Laboratory studies
show that various bac- Non-spore forming Room A few days Sackett (1919)
teria that cause masti- intestinal bacteria temperature
Escherichia coli 20 < 10 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
tis in dairy cattle are
Erwina amylovara 4 8 weeks De Wael et al. (1990)
sensitive to honey. If
Edwardsiella tarda 20 < 10 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
the same level of
Mycobacterium chelonie 20 26 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
effectiveness is
Mycobacterium phlei 20 17 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
demonstrated when Mycobacterium tuberculosis 20 67 days Tysset et al. (1979)
animals with mastitis M. tuberculosis bovis 20 77 days Tysset et al. (1979)
are treated with M. tuberculosis avium 20 71 days Tysset et al. (1979)
Proteus vulagaris 20 < 10 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
honey, then it could
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 20 8 hours Tysset & Durand (1973)
be used as a more
Salmonella derby 10 6 months, 13 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
consumer-friendly
Salmonella dublin 10 2 years, 4 months, 12 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
alternative to
Salmonella enteritidis 20 34 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
antibiotics.7 Salmonella enteritidis 10 1 year, 11 months, 5 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
Salmonella typhi 10 4 months, 21 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
Food Safety
Salmonella typhimurium 10 30 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
Antimicrobial Salmonella typhimurium 10 2 years, 4 months, 12 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
Serratia marcescens 20 18 days Tysset & Durand (1973)
activity against
Shigella 10 2 months, 22 days Tysset & Durand (1976)
food-borne
pathogens
that antibacterial activity of honey may be partly due to
and spoilage microorganisms
its antioxidants but more research is needed to deter-
Honey may contain organisms from bees, soil, air and
mine the effects of processing and activity in different
dust that are introduced during its collection and pro-
food systems.95 Thus, antioxidants in honey may play a
duction by the bee and during post-harvest handling.66,90
positive role in food safety beyond food preservation.
However, while Clostridium botulinum is found in a
Researchers from Cornell University investigated the
small percentage of honey,91,92,93,94 no other vegetative
antimicrobial activity of different types of American
cells of disease-causing organisms have ever been isolat-
honeys against six food pathogens and six food spoilage
ed.66 A number of inoculation studies have been con-
microorganisms in vitro. The honeys exhibited both
ducted to assess the ability of honey to inhibit bacteria
peroxide and non-peroxide antimicrobial activity, which
found naturally in it and other food contaminants.
varied according to the floral source. In this particular
Table 5 summarizes the results of many of these studies.
study, two types (tarwood and Montana buckwheat)
The inhibitory activity of honey from six floral
were effective at impeding the growth of Listeria mono-
sources on six foodborne pathogens, Escherichia coli
cytogenes at one-quarter and one-eighth dilution, respec-
O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella sonnei,
tively. At stronger dilutions, they impeded the growth
Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus
of Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella.
Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities - 9
At full-strength, Chinese buckwheat was effective stopped treatment because of a painful reaction to
against E. coli and Salmonella. The antimicrobial effect honey, one burn that had only a good initial response
appeared to vary by the type of bacteria—the high and an ulcer complicated by the presence of varicose
sugar content of honey seemed to inhibit the gram neg- veins.5
ative bacteria but a threshold inhibitory level was need- Clearly, the antimicrobial activity in honey that pre-
ed to prevent growth of the gram positive bacteria.96 vents and treats infections is fundamental to its wound
Honey appears to present healing properties. However,
Table 6 - Types of Wounds Treated Successfully
another option for enhancing the with Honey5 scientific evidence points to a
safety and shelf life of foods. A more diverse role for honey in
number of recent studies have Abrasions the process.10,26,32,34,74, 101,102,103,104
Abscesses
shown that honey will lower bac- Observed therapeutic effects
Amputations
teria counts in poultry and fish attributed to using honey as a
Bed sores (pressure sores, decubitus ulcers)
products. Researchers at Clemson Burns wound dressing include rapid
University used 15 percent dried Burst abdominal wounds following caesarian delivery healing, stimulation of the
Cancrum
honey in a processed turkey healing process, clearance of
Cervical ulcers
luncheon-meat type product and infection, cleansing action on
Chilblains
found no bacterial growth after wounds, stimulation of tissue
Cracked nipples
11 weeks of refrigerated storage.97 Cuts regeneration, reduction of
At the University of Georgia at Diabetic foot ulcers and other ulcers inflammation, and the comfort
Fistula
Athens, when honey was added to of the dressings due to lack of
Foot ulcers in lepers
a coating for shrimp and to a adhesion to the tissues.5
Infected wounds arising from trauma
marinade and coating for catfish, Large septic wounds Healing is a complex, dynamic
microorganisms were either Leg ulcers process that involves many sys-
Malignant ulcers
lower than the control or not tems and cell types. Molecular
Sickle cell ulcers
detected. The researchers also and cellular components are
Skin ulcers
demonstrated that honey added Surgical wounds responsible for the degradation
to a hydrated batter system Tropical ulcers and repair of tissues that occur
Varicose ulcers
suppressed the growth of during healing.105 While the
Wounds to the abdominal wall and perineum
Staphylococcus aureus during exact mechanisms for all the
processing.98,99 observed effects of honey when applied to wounds,
burns and skin ulcers are yet to be defined, recent
Wound Healing
research clarifies and elucidates some possible explana-
Properties and mechanisms tions. Table 7 summarizes properties of honey, clinical
Empirical evidence established honey as a treatment outcomes and possible mechanisms based on in vitro
for wounds and sores in ancient times. Today an exten- studies, animal models and clinical data.
sive body of scientific literature on the wound healing As a medical treatment, honey is rather innocuous.
capabilities of honey confirms its value as both an Other than occasional stinging when applied to wounds
antimicrobial agent and a promoter of healing.100 and redness in the eye, no adverse affects have been
A multitude of wound types have successfully been reported. In addition, allergy to honey is rare. In
treated with honey dressings. Table 6 lists the variety theory, wound botulism from naturally occurring
found in an extensive review of the medical literature. Clostridium botulinum spores is possible but in practice,
There have only been a few cases reported where this has never been reported. Since high heat is known
improvement did not occur—a Buruli ulcer, a small to inactivate the antimicrobial factors in honey, pasteur-
group in which only a small amount of honey was ization or other heat treatments are not sterilization
applied, two cases with immunodepression, one who options. However, treatment with gamma-irradiation
10 - Honey–Health and Therapeutic Qualities