Home, School and Work. A Study of the Education and Employment of Young People in Britain

347 Pages·1962·7.9 MB·English

by  M. P. Carter (Auth.)

HOME, SCHOOL AND
WORK
A Study of the Education and Employment
of Young People in Britain
BY
M. P. CARTER,
B.A. (Nottingham)
A Pergamon Press book
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK
1962
This book is distributed by
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY . NEW YORK
pursuant to a special arrangement with
PERGAMON PRESS LIMITED
Oxford, England
Copyright © 1962
PERGAMON PRESS LTD.
Library of Congress Card Number 62-21548
Set in 11 on 12pt. Baskerville
Printed by The Lewes Press Wightman & Co. Ltd.,
Friars Walk, Lewes, Sussex, England
To
My wife and family and to the
memory of Jonathan Michael Carter
v
NOTE
THIS book results from a study carried out in the Department of
Sociological Studies in the University of Sheffield. The author, as
Senior Research Worker, was responsible for the design, planning
and execution of the research. Miss Mary McNulty, M.A. (Cantab.),
was Junior Research Worker and assisted at all stages. The study
was made possible by a grant from the Human Sciences Committee
of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, to Professor
R. K. Kelsall and Dr. P. H. Mann.
viii
PREFACE
I WISH to acknowledge the work of Miss Mary McNulty who, as
Junior Research Worker, assisted at all stages of the research which
is described in this book. Miss McNulty shared the interviewing,
gave assistance in formulating the interviewing schedules, played an
important part in the analysing of data, did a considerable amount
of background reading, and made valuable suggestions for, and criti­
cisms of, the first draft of this report. I am glad to take this oppor­
tunity of indicating Miss McNulty's rôle in the research, and of
expressing my thanks to her.
Professor R. K. Kelsall, as Head of the Department of Sociological
Studies in the University of Sheffield, had ultimate responsibility
for this study, and I record with gratitude his kindly support. It has
been a pleasure to work under his charge. Dr. P. H. Mann was res­
ponsible for the negotiations which gave rise to this research, and it
was as a result of his previous work in this field that the study was
begun. My thanks are due to Dr. Mann for his assistance, and speci­
fically for help with interviews in the early stages.
The research would not have been possible but for the support
of the Sheffield Education Committee, to whom I express my thanks.
I am also grateful to the Director of Education, Mr. T. H. Tunn,
M.A., Ll.B., and his Assistant Education Officers, Mr. W. W.
Holland, M.A., and Mr. W. G. Lumb, B.A., who were all generous
in their help. The head teachers of the schools concerned in the re­
search must remain anonymous: they all willingly gave of their
time and knowledge. Few people realize how busy head teachers and
their staffs are: I much appreciate the courtesy which the Sheffield
teachers have shown me.
A special word of thanks is due to Mr. G. W. Brand, Youth Em­
ployment Officer for Sheffield, and his assistants, especially Mr. R.
Woodward (Senior Assistant, Boys). It is suggested in this book that
the Youth Employment Service is deficient in many ways. The faults
are a national problem and a national responsibility, and in no way
reflect upon the qualities of Mr. Brand and his staff. Sheffield is
fortunate to have a Service manned by dedicated men and women,
and I have a deep respect for the work which they are doing. It is my
hope that this book will contribute to a wider understanding of the
ix
X HOME, SCHOOL AND WORK
Youth Employment Service and of the obstacles with which it is con­
fronted. I am very grateful for all the help which Mr. Brand and his
staff have given, and for the interest which they have shown.
Mrs. Mary Williams was Research Secretary for three years, and
returned to help with the final typescript. But for Mrs. Williams's
efficiency my task would have been much more difficult: and but
for her friendship and loyalty it would have been much less pleasant.
I am deeply grateful for all her help. Miss Sandra Young, Depart­
mental Secretary, was no less helpful, and took great trouble to
smooth the path of the research : I can only match her patience with
my thanks. I also wish to thank Mrs. Margaret Sayles, secretary in
the Department, who kindly assisted on many occasions.
The Sheffield Chamber of Commerce and the Sheffield Trades
and Labour Council supported the research in various ways, and I
thank them, especially Mr. F. K. Horner, Assistant Secretary of the
Chamber, and Mr. V. M. Thornes, Secretary of the Council. I thank,
also, the many employers who co-operated by permitting interviews
to be held at their firms, and by giving their own time for discus­
sions.
I have received help of various kinds from many other people,
and I wish to thank them all, especially the following: Mr. L. B.
Birch, Senior Lecturer in the University of Sheffield Institute of
Education; Mr. F. B. Brighton, of International Computers and
Tabulators Ltd.; Dr. P. Brown, Senior Lecturer in Social Medicine
in the University of Sheffield; Dr. Margery Clifton, previously of the
Medical Research Council Unit at the University of Sheffield; Pro­
fessor H. C. Dent, previously of the University of Sheffield Institute
of Education (whose book Secondary Modern Schools was particu­
larly helpful to the author in connection with the outline of trends
in these schools which is given in Chapter 1 of the present book);
Mr. E. W. Hughes of the University of Leicester Institute of Educa­
tion; Mr. D. F. Kerridge, Lecturer in Statistics in the University of
Sheffield; Mr. A. Leighton and Mr. D. Brooks of the Divisional
Headquarters, North Eastern Division, the National Coal Board;
Mr. David Martin, Assistant Lecturer in Sociology in the University
of London; Dr. Vera Palmer of the University of Melbourne; Pro­
fessor Robert Peers, C.B.E., and Professor W. J. H. Sprott, of the
University of Nottingham; and Dr. Ethel Venables, Nuffield Research
Fellow in the University of Birmingham.
In expressing thanks to all those who have kindly helped, I accept,
of course, the responsibility for the contents and conclusions of this
book, and for its shortcomings.
PREFACE XI
I am very appreciative of the generosity of the Research Fund
Committee of the University of Sheffield, which made a grant for the
typing of the manuscript of this book.
I am grateful to the following for permission to quote passages
which are specified in the Notes and References: The Director,
British Association for Commercial and Industrial Education; Faber
8c Faber Ltd.; Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.; the Controller of
H.M. Stationery Office; The Director, P.E.P.; Routledge and Kegan
Paul Ltd.; The Times Publishing Company Ltd. (for permission to
quote from The Times Educational Supplement)) The Editor, The
Twentieth Century.
Finally I wish to thank the boys and girls who were the subjects
of this study, and their parents : to each respondent I am very grate­
ful. I hope that I have interpreted the views of these young people
faithfully.
M. P. CARTER
The University of Sheffield
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
THE majority of young people in this country attend secondary
modern schools, or receive a "secondary modern' ' education in other,
non-selective, schools. There has been a tendency in the last few
years for more of these children to remain at school beyond the statu­
tory minimum leaving age of fifteen: but most secondary modern
boys and girls leave school as soon as they are entitled to do so. In
the past decade, between 400,000 and 500,000 young people entered
employment at the age of fifteen each year, most of them having
attended "modern" schools(1). It is these young people who become
the rank and file workers of the world of work. What sort of educa­
tion have they received? What are their attitudes towards work?
How suited are they to the jobs which they take? How do they adjust
to a new way of life? Together, these boys and girls will constitute
a majority of the population: what do they know about life, and
how do they look upon living? These are large questions, and re­
search resources are small. The field-work upon which this book is
based was confined to a "sample" of Sheffield schoolchildren—100
boys and 100 girls. They were interviewed on three occasions, once
before leaving school and twice subsequently. The aims of the re­
search were to analyse factors affecting young people in their atti­
tudes towards employment, and to examine in detail the process of
transition from school to work. The purpose of this Introduction is
to outline the national context in which this study must be set.
Secondary Modern Schools
The Education Act of 1944 introduced a system of secondary
education for all, based upon three main types of school—secondary
grammar, secondary technical, and secondary modern. Grammar
schools and technical schools were already in existence, and provided
secondary education for selected children: secondary modern
schools were created as a result of the Act—to cater for the bulk of
children, who previously had received an "elementary" education.
It was envisaged that, in time, secondary modern schools would have
the same amenities as grammar and technical schools: many new
schools have been built, and many others have been modified to
1
2 HOME, SCHOOL AND WORK
meet the needs of a secondary education, but a large proportion of
the buildings used as ' 'modern' ' schools are unsuitable for that pur­
pose. Most secondary modern children, however, attend schools of
that name, and a comparatively small number are pupils in the
4'modern" sections of bilateral and multilateral schools—schools
which are amalgamations of two or all three of the grammar, tech­
nical and modern elements of secondary education. A substantial
proportion of "non-selected" children still attend "all-age" schools;
this, in the words of a Government White Paper, "means that the
older children have no opportunity of a full secondary education,
while the younger children do not enjoy the advantages of a school
planned and organised to meet their special needs"(2). The White
Paper was issued in 1958, when 7 per cent of senior children were
in all-age schools: although the percentage had fallen to 4 by 1960,
there were still 100,000 children in all-age schools in that year(3). It
is a central aim of educational policy to complete the reorganization
of all-age schools, and the main building programme in the five-year
plan announced by the White Paper was designed with this end in
view.
In principle, children are allocated to the type of secondary edu­
cation which accords with their abilities. The 1944 Act assumed that
the tripartite system provides for the needs and aptitudes of all
children, and it is towards this end that secondary modern schools
have been encouraged to experiment in their methods and to diver­
sify the content of their teaching. The Act also assumed that com­
paratively few children would have the ability and aptitude for an
academic (secondary grammar) education, and few would be suited
for a technical education : the majority would best be served by the
secondary modern schools. It was not the intention that all of the
most able children would go to grammar schools(4). In practice, how­
ever, allocation to secondary education amounts, in all but a few
local authority areas, to selection for grammar school and technical
school. Those who are not selected go to the modern schools. Over­
whelmingly, too, a grammar school education is preferred by those
parents who are interested in the education of their children, with
technical school as a second best.
The provision of grammar and technical places varies consider­
ably from area to area: The proportion of grammar school places
ranges from 10 per cent to over 40 per cent in England, and in parts
of Wales the proportion is 60 per cent(5). A P.E.P. pamphlet has
stated the position as follows: "The one characteristic which all
secondary modern school pupils have in common is that they have
not reached the standard required for entry into grammar schools in
INTRODUCTION 3
the area in which they live,,(6). These variations are arbitrary: they
may depend upon the historical development of a locality, its
economic structure, its prosperity or depression, the political lean­
ings of the population, or a variety of other factors. They are not
related to differences in the ability of children. Overall, approxi­
mately three-quarters of the children attending state maintained
and aided schools in England and Wales receive a ' 'non-selective* '
education(7). Apart from the disparate opportunities for ''selective''
education throughout the country, there are many criticisms of the
validity of the techniques used for selection. The assumption that
three types of aptitude—"academic", "technical", and, for the want
of another word, "practical"—exist is open to challenge: that these
abilities can be distinguished at the age of eleven is a thesis which is
met increasingly with scepticism. In practice, selection depends in
many areas upon performance in tests of intelligence, although
attainment in school-work and conventional tests in writing and
arithmetic are often taken into account as well. There is much com­
ment about the use of intelligence tests as a basis of selection, how­
ever. It is argued by some that too much emphasis is placed upon
"intelligence" and not enough upon persistence, effort and the desire
to learn. The accuracy of intelligence tests is also contested. One esti­
mate suggests that as many as 122 children may be wrongly placed
in every 1000 allocated(8). Another criticism is that since children
mature at different ages, and since intelligence may alter with age,
selection at the age of eleven is unfair to some children. The Central
Advisory Council for Education, in its 1959 Report 15 to 18 (The
Crowther Report) has, indeed, pointed out that "any system of selec­
tion of pupils, however accurate a classification it may have provided
at the time it was made, becomes to some extent inaccurate with the
passage of time . . . Much careful research work has shown pretty
clearly that a fresh classification after four years, i.e. about the age of
15, would have redistributed between selective and non-selective
schools about 14 per cent of the pupils"(9). Some pupils—"late-ish
developers" and boys and girls whom the 11-plus selection procedure
patently misallocated, are subsequently transferred from modern to
grammar or technical schools, usually at the age of 13 (and a few chil­
dren move in the reverse direction). A Ministry Guide to the Educa
tional System of England and Wales has stated that "... free inter­
change of pupils from one type (of secondary school) to another will be
made as easy as possible, and the decision as to the type of education
which was made at the age of about 11 will be reviewed at the age of
13 and even later"(10). Very few transfers in fact take place, however,
compared with the number of children who may be presumed to have