Holt Chemistry PDF
Preview Holt Chemistry
*CV06PE_FRM _i-xvii 10/21/04 12:08 PM Page i A U T H O R S R. Thomas Myers, Ph.D. Keith B. Oldham, D.Sc. Professor Emeritus of Chemistry Professor Emeritus of Chemistry Kent State University Trent University, Kent, Ohio Peterborough, Ontario, Canada Salvatore Tocci Science Writer East Hampton, New York Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. *CV06PE_FRM _i-xvii 10/26/04 1:47 PM Page ii A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S R. Thomas Myers, Ph.D. Dr. Myers received his B.S. and Ph.D. in chemistry from West Virginia University in Morgantown, West Virginia. He was an assistant professor of chemistry and department head at Waynesburg College in Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, and an assistant professor at the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. He then joined the chemistry faculty at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, where he is currently a professor emeritus of chemistry. Keith B. Oldham, D.Sc. Dr. Oldham received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Manchester in Manchester, England and performed postdoctoral research at the Noyes Chemical Laboratory at the University of Illinois in Urbana, Illinois. He was awarded a D.Sc. from the University of Manchester for his novel research in the area of electrode processes. He was an assistant lec- turer of chemistry at the Imperial College in London and a lecturer in chemistry at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Dr. Oldham worked as a scientist for the North American Rockwell Corporation where he per- formed research for NASA. After 24 years on the faculty, he is now a pro- fessor emeritus at Trent University in Peterborough, Canada. Salvatore Tocci Salvatore Tocci received his B.A from Cornell University in Ithaca, New York and a Master of Philosophy from the City University of New York in New York City. He was a science teacher and science department chair- person at East Hampton High School in East Hampton, New York, and an adjunct instructor at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York. He was also an adjunct lecturer at the State University of New York at Stony Brook and a science teacher at Southold High School in Southold, New York. Mr. Tocci is currently a science writer and educational consultant. Copyright ©2006 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to the following address: Permissions Department, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 10801 N. MoPac Expressway, Building 3, Austin, Texas 78759. CNN video footagecopyright ©2000 by Cable News Network LP, LLLP, a Time Warner Company. All rights reserved. CBLis a trademark of Texas Instruments. CNNis a registered trademark of Cable News Network LP, LLLP, a Time Warner Company. HOLTand the “Owl Design”are trademarks licensed to Holt, Rinehart and Winston, registered in the United States of America and/or other jurisdictions. SCILINKSis a registered trademark owned and provided by the National Science Teachers Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN 0-03-039107-5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 048 08 07 06 05 04 ii Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S CONTRIBUTING Geology and Geochemistry Phillip LaRoe WRITERS Division of Geological and Instructor Planetary Sciences Department of Physics and Inclusion Specialists California Institute of Chemistry Technology Central Community College Joan A. Solorio Pasadena, California Grande Isle, Nebraska Special Education Director Austin Independent School Nigel Atkinson, Ph.D. Jeanne L. McHale, Ph.D. District Associate Professor of Professor of Chemistry Austin, Texas Neurobiology College of Science Institute for Cellular and University of Idaho John A. Solorio Molecular Biology Moscow, Idaho Multiple Technologies Lab The University of Texas Facilitator Gary Mueller, Ph.D. Austin, Texas Austin Independent School Associate Professor of District Scott W. Cowley, Ph.D. Nuclear Engineering Austin, Texas Associate Professor Department of Engineering Department of Chemistry University of Missouri Lab Safety Consultant and Geochemistry Rolla, Missouri Colorado School of Mines Allen B. Cobb Brian Pagenkopf, Ph.D. Golden, Colorado Science Writer Professor of Chemistry La Grange, Texas Gina Frey, Ph.D. Department of Chemistry Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry Lab Tester Department of Chemistry The University of Texas Michelle Johnston Washington University Austin, Texas Trent University St. Louis, Missouri Charles Scaife, Ph.D. Peterborough, Ontario, William B. Guggino, Ph.D. Chemistry Professor Canada Professor of Physiology Department of Chemistry The Johns Hopkins University Union College Teacher Edition Development Baltimore, Maryland Schenectady, New York Ann Bekebrede Joan Hudson, Ph.D. Fred Seaman, Ph.D. Science Writer Associate Professor of Research Scientist and Sherborn, Massachusetts Botany Chemist Elizabeth M. Dabrowski Sam Houston State Department of Science Department Chair University Pharmacological Chemistry Magnificat High School Huntsville, Texas The University of Texas Cleveland, Ohio Austin, Texas Wendy L. Keeney-Kennicutt, Frances Jenkins Ph.D. Peter Sheridan, Ph.D. Science Writer Associate Professor of Associate Professor of Sunburg, Ohio Chemistry Chemistry Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Laura Prescott Texas A&M University Colgate University Science Writer College Station, Texas Hamilton, New York Pearland, Texas Samuel P. Kounaves Spencer Steinberg, Ph.D. Matt Walker Associate Professor of Associate Professor of Science Writer Chemistry Environmental Organic Portland, Oregon Department of Chemistry Chemistry Tufts University Department of Chemistry ACADEMIC REVIEWERS Medford, Massachusetts University of Nevada Las Vegas, Nevada Eric Anslyn, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The University of Texas Austin, Texas Paul Asimow, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Continued on next page iii Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S C O N T I N U E D Aaron Timperman, Ph.D. Linda Culp Stewart Lipsky Professor of Chemistry Science Teacher Science Teacher Department of Chemistry Thorndale High School Seward Park High School University of West Virginia Thorndale, Texas New York, New York Morgantown, West Virginia Chris Diehl Mike Lubich Richard S. Treptow, Ph.D. Science Teacher Science Teacher Professor of Chemistry Belleville High School Maple Town High School Department of Chemistry Belleville, Michigan Greensboro, Pennsylvania and Physics Alonda Droege Thomas Manerchia Chicago State University Science Teacher Environmental Science Chicago, Illinois Seattle, Washington Teacher, Retired Martin VanDyke, Ph.D. Archmere Academy Benjamen Ebersole Professor Emeritus of Claymont, Delaware Science Teacher Chemistry Donnegal High School Betsy McGrew Front Range Community Mount Joy, Pennsylvania Science Teacher College Star Charter School Westminister, Colorado Jeffrey L. Engel Austin, Texas Science Teacher Charles Wynn, Ph.D. Madison County High School Jennifer Seelig-Fritz Chemistry Assistant Chair Athens, Georgia Science Teacher Department of Physical North Springs High School Sciences Stacey Hagberg Atlanta, Georgia Eastern Connecticut State Science Teacher University Donnegal High School Dyanne Semerjibashian Willimantic, Connecticut Mount Joy, Pennsylvania Science Teacher Star Charter School Gail Hermann Austin, Texas TEACHER REVIEWERS Science Teacher Quincy High School Linnaea Smith David Blinn Quincy, Illinois Science Teacher Secondary Sciences Teacher Bastrop High School Wrenshall High School Donald R. Kanner Bastrop, Texas Physics and Chemistry Wrenshall, Minnesota Instructor Gabriela Waschesky, Ph.D. Robert Chandler Lane Technical High School Science and Mathematics Science Teacher Chicago, Illinois Teacher Soddy-Daisy High School Emery High School Soddy-Daisy, Tennessee Edward Keller Emeryville, California Science Teacher Cindy Copolo, Ph.D. Morgantown High School (Credits and Acknowledg- Science Specialist Morgantown, West Virginia ments continued on p. 908) Summit Solutions Bahama, North Carolina iv Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. C o n t e n t s In Brief Chapters 1 The Science of Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 2 Matter and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3 Atoms and Moles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4 The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5 Ions and Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 6 Covalent Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 7 The Mole and Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . 222 8 Chemical Equations and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 258 9 Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 10 Causes of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 11 States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces . . . . 376 12 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 13 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 14 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 15 Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 16 Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 17 Oxidation, Reduction, and Electrochemistry . . . . 602 18 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 19 Carbon and Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 20 Biological Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 Laboratory Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 Appendices Appendix A: Chemical Reference Handbook . . . . . . . 828 Appendix B: Study Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Appendix C: Graphing Calculator Technology . . . . . . 856 Appendix D: Problem Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 Appendix E: Answers to Selected Problems . . . . . . . 876 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Spanish Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 v Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. *CV06PE_FRM _i-xvii 10/19/04 3:28 PM Page vi C o n t e n t s C H A P T E R The Science of Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 SECTION 1 What Is Chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 SECTION 2 Describing Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 SECTION 3 How Is Matter Classified? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Consumer Focus Aspirin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Element Spotlight Aluminum’s Humble Beginnings . . . . . . . . . 29 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 C H A P T E R Matter and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 SECTION 1 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 SECTION 2 Studying Matter and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 SECTION 3 Measurements and Calculations in Chemistry . . . 54 Element Spotlight Deep Diving with Helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 C H A P T E R Atoms and Moles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 SECTION 1 Substances Are Made of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 SECTION 2 Structure of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 SECTION 3 Electron Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 SECTION 4 Counting Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Element Spotlight Beryllium: An Uncommon Element . . . . . . 105 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 vi Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. *CV06PE_FRM _i-xvii 11/8/04 12:29 PM Page vii C H A P T E R The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 SECTION 1 How are Elements Organized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 SECTION 2 Tour of the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 SECTION 3 Trends in the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 SECTION 4 Where Did the Elements Come From? . . . . . . . . . 142 Consumer Focus Good Health is Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Science and Technology Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 C H A P T E R Ions and Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 SECTION 1 Simple Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 SECTION 2 Ionic Bonding and Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 SECTION 3 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds . . . . . .176 Element Spotlight A Major Nutritional Mineral . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 C H A P T E R Covalent Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 SECTION 1 Covalent Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 SECTION 2 Drawing and Naming Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 SECTION 3 Molecular Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Element Spotlight Silicon and Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 vii Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. *CV06PE_FRM _i-xvii 10/19/04 3:32 PM Page viii C H A P T E R The Mole and Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 SECTION 1 Avogadro’s Number and Molar Conversions . . . . . 224 SECTION 2 Relative Atomic Mass and Chemical Formulas . . . 234 SECTION 3 Formulas and Percentage Composition . . . . . . . . 241 Element Spotlight Get the Lead Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 C H A P T E R Chemical Equations and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 SECTION 1 Describing Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 SECTION 2 Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 SECTION 3 Classifying Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 SECTION 4 Writing Net Ionic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Consumer Focus Fire Extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 C H A P T E R Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 SECTION 1 Calculating Quantities in Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 302 SECTION 2 Limiting Reactants and Percentage Yield . . . . . . 312 SECTION 3 Stoichiometry and Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 viii Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. C H A P T E R Causes of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 SECTION 1 Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 SECTION 2 Using Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 SECTION 3 Changes in Enthalpy During Chemical Reactions . . 350 SECTION 4 Order and Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Science and Technology Hydrogen-Powered Cars . . . . . . . . . 368 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 C H A P T E R States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . 376 SECTION 1 States and State Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 SECTION 2 Intermolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 SECTION 3 Energy of State Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 SECTION 4 Phase Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Science and Technology Supercritical Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 C H A P T E R Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 SECTION 1 Characteristics of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 SECTION 2 The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 SECTION 3 Molecular Composition of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Element Spotlight Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Chapter Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 ix Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
The list of books you might like
