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AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page i Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM HIV/AIDS in the Post-HAART Era MANIFESTATIONS, TREATMENT, AND EPIDEMIOLOGY AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page ii Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page iii Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM HIV/AIDS in the Post-HAART Era MANIFESTATIONS, TREATMENT, AND EPIDEMIOLOGY John C. Hall, MD Department of Medical Dermatology University of Missouri—Kansas City Department of Dermatology, St. Luke’s Hospital Dermatology Staff, Kansas City Free Health Clinic Kansas City, Missouri Brian J. Hall, MD Department of Pathology University of Utah School of Medicine Salt Lake City, Utah Clay J. Cockerell, MD Director, Division of Dermatopathology University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center Medical Director, Cockerell & Associates Dermpath Diagnostics Dermatopathology Laboratories Dallas, Texas 2011 PEOPLE’S MEDICAL PUBLISHING HOUSE–USA SHELTON, CONNECTICUT AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page iv Saturday, April 23, 2011 12:57 PM People’s Medical Publishing House-USA 2 Enterprise Drive, Suite 509 Shelton, CT 06484 Tel: 203-402-0646 Fax: 203-402-0854 E-mail: [email protected] © 2011 PMPH-USA, Ltd. All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the publisher. 11 12 13 14/PMPH/9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in China by People’s Medical Publishing House Production/Book design: GYAT; Copy editor/indexer: Joanne M. Still; Staff Editor: Linda Mehta; Cover designer: Mary McKeon Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data HIV/AIDS in the post-HAART era : manifestations, treatment, and epidemiology / [edited by] John C. Hall, Brian J. Hall, Clay J. Cockerell. p. ; cm. ISBN-13: 978-1-60795-105-6 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-60795-105-3 (alk. paper) 1. AIDS (Disease) 2. HIV infections. I. Hall, John C., 1947– II. Hall, Brian J. (Brian John), 1981– III. Cockerell, Clay J. [DNLM: 1. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. 2. HIV Infections. WC 503] RA606.6H5834 2011 616.97′92--dc22 2011009217 Sales and Distribution Canada United Kingdom, Europe, Middle East, Brazil McGraw-Hill Ryerson Education Africa SuperPedido Tecmedd Customer Care McGraw Hill Education Beatriz Alves, Foreign Trade Department 300 Water St Shoppenhangers Road R. 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The reader is cautioned that the purpose of this book is to inform and enlighten; the information contained herein is not intended as, and should not be employed as, a substitute for individual diagnosis and treatment. AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page v Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM C O N T E N T S viii Contributors xiv Foreword xvi Preface xvii Introduction: AIDS: The first 30 years—Where we have been, where we are, and where we are going xxiv Abbreviations and Acronyms PART I: HISTORY 3 Chapter 1: An Epidemic of Unknown Proportion: The First Decade of HIV/AIDS Gerald M. Oppenheimer and Ronald Bayer 20 Chapter 2: A Personal History of the Discovery of HIV Robert C. Gallo PART II: PREVENTION 33 Chapter 3: Facing HIV/AIDS Prevention Cristina Pimenta, Ivo Brito, and Pedro Chequer PART III: THE DISEASE 61 Chapter 4: HIV Transmission Lisa A. Clough and Fernando L. Merino 81 Chapter 5: Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS Quarraisha Abdool Karim and Ayesha B. M. Kharsany 98 Chapter 6: Virology of HIV Marvin S. Reitz 118 Chapter 7: Laboratory Testing for HIV/AIDS Yi-Wei Tang PART IV: CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS 147 Chapter 8: Cutaneous Manifestations of HIV/AIDS Joseph S. Susa and Clay J. Cockerell 193 Chapter 9: Viral Hepatitis and HIV Coinfection Pablo Rivas, Eugenia Vispo, Pablo Labarga, Jose Medrano, Pablo Barreiro, Luz Martin-Carbonero, and Vincent Soriano 218 Chapter 10: Gastrointestinal Manifestations of HIV/AIDS C. Mel Wilcox 240 Chapter 11: Cardiovascular Manifestations of HIV/AIDS Giuseppe Barbaro 254 Chapter 12: Pulmonary Manifestations of HIV/AIDS Mark Hull, Peter Phillips, Don Sin, Paul Man, and Julio S. G. Montaner 278 Chapter 13: HIV-1 and the Nervous System: Past, Present, and Future Richard W. Price 293 Chapter 14: Ophthalmic Manifestations of HIV/AIDS Jyotirmay Biswas and S. Sudharshan AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page vi Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM 319 Chapter 15: Metabolic Consequences of HIV/AIDS Donald P. Kotler and Rohit Singhania 000 336 Chapter 16: An Overview of Psychiatry in AIDS Care Glenn Treisman and Andrew F. Angelino 350 Chapter 17: The Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome David M. Murdoch, Willem Daniel Francois Venter, and Charles Feldman PART V: TREATMENT 389 Chapter 18: Treatment of HIV Laura Waters, Andrew Scourfield, and Mark Nelson 404 Chapter 19: Treatment of Viral Infections C. Beau Willison, L. Katie Morrison, Natalia Mendoza, and Stephen K. Tyring 450 Chapter 20: Treatment of Bacterial Infections Jason Faulhaber 481 Chapter 21: Management of Opportunistic Fungal Infections in HIV/AIDS Patients Preena Bhalla, Ravinder Kaur, and S. Anuradha 522 Chapter 22: HIV/AIDS and TB Coinfection: A Political Call to Action Carole P. McArthur, Jürgen Noeske, and Nicole Parrish 538 Chapter 23: HIV-Related Tuberculosis Walkyria Pereira Pinto and Marco Antonio de Ávila Vitória 568 Chapter 24: AIDS-Associated Malignancies and Their Treatment Mark Bower and Justin Stebbing PART VI: AIDS AND SPECIFIC POPULATIONS 595 Chapter 25: Children With HIV Infection Marie-Louise Newell, Claire Thorne, and Ruth M. Bland 613 Chapter 26: Meeting the Unique Needs of HIV-Positive Women Sharon L. Walmsley and Mona R. Loutfy 648 Chapter 27: Commercial Sex and the HIV/AIDS Epidemic Eloise Rathbone-McCuan, Eve Lofthus, and Carole P. McArthur 656 Chapter 28: African Americans and HIV: Epidemiology, Context, Behavioral Interventions, and Future Directions for Prevention Darigg C. Brown, Donna Hubbard McCree, and Agatha N. Eke 679 Chapter 29: HIV/AIDS in Hispanic/Latino Communities Jeffrey H. Herbst, JoAna M. Stallworth, Roberto Mejia, José A. Bauermeister, and Antonia M. Villarruel 709 Chapter 30: HIV/AIDS in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Communities Gordon Mansergh and Darrel Higa 742 Chapter 31: AIDS and Aging: A Living Experience Eloise Rathbone-McCuan, Erin Boyce, and Share DeCoix Bane PART VII: AIDS AND SOCIETY 753 Chapter 32: At 30 Years: HIV/AIDS and Other STDs Among Persons Who Use Psychoactive Drugs Don C. Des Jarlais, Salaam Semaan, and Kamyar Arasteh AIDS103_00_fm01_TofC.fm Page vii Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:53 PM 779 Chapter 33: HIV and Violence Against Women Rachel Jewkes 790 Chapter 34: HIV-Related Stigma John B. Pryor and Glenn D. Reeder PART VIII: AIDS IN SPECIFIC GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS 807 Chapter 35: AIDS in Africa Joep M.A. Lange, Elly Katabira, and Andrew Kambugu 820 Chapter 36: AIDS in Eastern Europe and Central Asia Dmitry Lioznov, Kristi Ruutel, Anneli Uuskula, and Jack A. DeHovitz 839 Chapter 37: AIDS in Asia and the Pacific Ying-Ru Lo, Thi Thanh Thuy Nguyen, Padmini Srikantiah, Jean-Louis Exceler, Massimo Ghidinelli, and Jai P. Narain 865 Chapter 38: AIDS in Latin America and the Caribbean Pedro Cahn and Omar Sued PART IX: THE FUTURE 891 Chapter 39: Adolescents and the Future of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic Lars O. Kallings 900 Chapter 40: Development of Antiviral Therapeurtics for HIV-1 Infection and AIDS Kenji Maeda, Debananda Das, and Hiroaki Mitsuya 938 Chapter 41: An HIV Vaccine: Is It Possible? Are We Getting Closer? James F. Stanford and Carol W. Stanford 966 Chapter 42: Future Directions Pedro Cahn 982 Chapter 43: The Next Pandemic: Preparedness, Prediction, and Publicity Philip Alcabes 993 EPILOGUE 995 INDEX AIDS103_00_fm02_Contrib.fm Page viii Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:54 PM C * ONTRIBUTORS Quarraisha Abdool Karim, MS, PhD [5] Preena Bhalla, MD [21] Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in Director Professor & Head South Africa Department of Microbiology University of KwaZulu-Natal Maulana Azad Medical College and Durban, South Africa Lok Nayak Hospital and Department of Epidemiology New Delhi, India Mailman School of Public Health Columbia University, New York Jyotirmay Biswas, MD [14] Director and Head Department of Uveitis and Ocular Pathology Philip Alcabes, PhD [43] Medical and Vision Research Foundations Professor, School of Public Health Sankara Nethralaya Hunter College Chennai, India New York, New York Ruth M. Bland, MD [25] Andrew F. Angelino, MD [16] Division of Developmental Medicine Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral University of Glasgow Sciences United Kingdom Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and Africa Centre for Health and Population Studies Baltimore, Maryland University of KwaZulu-Natal Somkhele,South Africa S. Anuradha, MD [21] Professor of Medicine Mark Bower, PhD, FRCP, FRCPath[24] Department of Medicine Consultant Medical Oncologist Maulana Azad Medical College Chelsea & Westminster Hospital Lok Nayak Hospital London, United Kingdom New Delhi, India Erin Boyce, MSW [31] Kamyar Arasteh, PhD [32] Research Assistant Beth Israel Medical Center School of Social Work New York, New York 10038 University of Denver Denver, Colorado Share DeCoix Bane, PhD, MSW [31] State Gerontologist Ivo Brito [3] Missouri State Agricultural Extension Service Sociologist University of Missouri-Kansas City Chief of Prevention Kansas City, Missouri Brazilian National AIDS Program, Ministry of Health Brazilia, Brazil Giuseppe Barbaro, MD [11] Cardiology Unit Darigg C. Brown, PhD, MPH [28] Department of Medical Pathophysiology ORISE HIV Prevention in Communities of Color University “La Sapienza” Post-Doctoral Research Fellow Rome, Italy Prevention Research Branch Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention Pablo Barreiro, MD, PhD [9] National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD Infectious Diseases Department and TB Prevention Hospital Carlos III Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Madrid, Spain Atlanta, Georgia José A. Bauermeister, MPH, PhD [29] Pedro Cahn, MD, PhD [38], [42] Assistant Professor, Department of Health Behavior Chief, Division of Infectious Diseases and Health Education Hospital Juan A. Fernández The University of Michigan School of Public Health Buenos Aires, Argentina Ann Arbor, Michigan and President, Fundación Huesped, Buenos Aires Professor on Infectious Diseases, Buenos Aires Ronald Bayer, PhD [1] University Medical School and Professor, Center for the History and Ethics of Past-President, International AIDS Society Public Health Buenos Aires, Argentina Department of Sociomedical Sciences Columbia University Mailman School of Pedro Chequer, MD, MPH [3] Public Health UNAIDS Country Coordinator New York, New York Brazilia, Brazil *Contributors are listed in bold alphabetcally by last name. Bold bracketed numbers represent a contributor’s chapter and the editors are distinguished by [Editor]. viii AIDS103_00_fm02_Contrib.fm Page ix Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:54 PM CONTRIBUTORS ix Lisa A. Clough, MD [4] Massimo Ghidinelli, MD [37] Assistant Professor of Medicine Regional Advisor, HIV/AIDS and STI Division of Infectious Diseases Department of Combatting Communicable Diseases University of Kansas Medical Center World Health Organization Kansas City, Kansas Regional Office for the Western Pacific Manila, The Philippines Clay J. Cockerell, MD [Editor], [8] Professor, Department of Dermatopathology Brian J. Hall, MD [Editor] University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center Department of Pathology and Medical Director, Cockerell & Associates University of Utah School of Medicine Dermpath Diagnostics Salt Lake City, Utah Dermatopathology Laboratory Dallas, Texas John C. Hall, MD [Editor] Department of Medical Dermatology University of Missouri—Kansas City Debananda Das, PhD [40] Department of Dermatology, St. Luke’s Hospital Staff Scientist, Experimental Retrovirology Section Dermatology Staff, Kansas City Free Health Clinic HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch Kansas City, Missouri National Cancer Institute Bethesda, Maryland Jeffrey H. Herbst, PhD [29] Lead Behavioral Scientist Jack A. DeHovitz, MD, MPH [36] Prevention Research Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Professor, Department of Medicine Prevention SUNY Downstate Medical Center National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD Brooklyn, NewYork and TB Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Don C. Des Jarlais, PhD [32] Atlanta, Georgia Director of Research Beth Israel Medical Center Darrel Higa, PhD, MSW [30] New York, New York ORISE Postdoctoral Fellow Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention Agatha N. Eke, PhD [28] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Behavioral Scientist, Prevention Research Branch Atlanta, Georgia Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD Mark Hull, MD [12] and TB Prevention Division of HIV/AIDS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Department of Medicine Atlanta, Georgia St. Paul’s Hospital Providence Health Care and University of British Columbia Jean-Louis Excler, MD [37] International AIDS Vaccine Initiative NewYork Rachel Jewkes, MBBS, MSc, MFPHM, MD [33] New York, New York Professor Director, Gender & Health Research Unit Medical Research Council Jason Faulhaber, MD [20] Pretoria, South Africa Clinical Instructor, Department of Medicine Harvard Medical School Lars O. Kallings, MD PhD [39] Fenway Community Health Professor Emeritus of Clinical Microbiology Boston, Massachusetts Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control Stockholm, Sweden Charles Feldman, MD, PhD [17] Former Special Envoy of the UN Secretary General Division of Pulmonology for HIV/AIDS in Eastern Europe and Central Asia Department of Internal Medicine Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital Andrew Kambugu, MB, ChB, MMed [35] and Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Medicine and Infectious Diseases University of the Witwatersrand Institute Johannesburg, South Africa School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences Makerere University Robert C. Gallo, MD [2] Kampala, Uganda Co-Director, Division of Basic Science and Vaccine Research Elly Katabira, FRCP(UK) [35] Director, Institute of Human Virology Department of Medicine and Infectious Diseases Professor of Microbiology and Immunology Institute Professor of Medicine, School of Medicine School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences University of Maryland School of Medicine Makerere Medical School Baltimore, Maryland Kampala, Uganda AIDS103_00_fm02_Contrib.fm Page x Tuesday, April 12, 2011 5:54 PM x CONTRIBUTORS Ravinder Kaur, MD [21] Donna Hubbard McCree, PhD, MPH, RPh Professor, Department of Microbiology [28] Maulana Azad Medical College and Associate Director for Health Equity Lok Nayak Hospital Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention New Delhi, India National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD and TB Prevention, Ayesha B. M. Kharsany, MSc, PhD [5] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in Atlanta, Georgia South Africa University of KwaZulu-Natal Kenji Maeda, MD, PhD [40] Durban, South Africa Research Fellow, Experimental Retrovirology Section, HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch Donald Philip Kotler, MD [15] National Cancer Institute Division of Gastroenterology & Liver Diseases Bethesda, Maryland Professor, Department of Medicine St. Luke’s–Roosevelt Hospital Center Paul Man [12] Columbia University College of Physicians and Division of Respiratory Medicine Surgeons Department of Medicine New York, New York St. Paul’s Hospital Providence Health Care and University of British Columbia Pablo Labarga, MD, PhD [9] Infectious Diseases Department Gordon Mansergh, PhD, MA, MEd [30] Hospital Carlos III Senior Behavioral Scientist Madrid, Spain Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Joep M. A. Lange, MD, PhD [35] Atlanta, Georgia Department of Global Health Academic Medical Center Luz Martin-Carbonero, MD, PhD [9] University of Amsterdam Infectious Diseases Department Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Hospital Carlos III Development Madrid, Spain The Netherlands Jose Medrano, MD [9] Dmitry Lioznov, MD, PhD [36] Infectious Diseases Department Chair, Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Carlos III Epidemiology Madrid, Spain Pavlov State Medical University St. Petersburg, Russia Roberto Mejia, DDS, PhD [29] Public Health Analyst and Contractor for Ying-Ru Lo, MD [37] Prevention Research Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Coordinator Prevention in the Health Sector Prevention Department of HIV/AIDS National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD World Health Organization and TB Prevention Geneva, Switzerland Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia Eve Lofthus, BS [27] Department of Oral Biology Natalia Mendoza, MD [19] School of Dentistry Clinical Research Associate University of Missouri-Kansas City Center for Clinical Studies Kansas City, Missouri Houston, Texas Mona R. Loutfy, MD, FRCPC, MPH [26] Fernando L. Merino, MD [4] Division of Infectious Diseases Assistant Professor of Medicine Department of Medicine Division of Infectious Diseases University of Toronto University of Kansas Medical Center Toronto, Ontario, Canada Kansas City, Kansas and Department of Medicine Women’s College Hospital Hiroaki Mitsuya, MD, PhD [40] Toronto, Ontario, Canada Chief and Principal Investigator Experimental Retrovirology Section Carole P. McArthur, MD, PhD [22], [27] HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch Professor, Department of Oral Biology National Cancer Institute University of Missouri-School of Dentistry Bethesda, Maryland and Department of Pathology and Professor and Chairman, Department of Truman Medical Center Hematology and Infectious Diseases University of Missouri-School of Medicine Kumamoto University School of Medicine Kansas City, Missouri Japan