History of Greece Vol 1112 by George Grote

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Title: History of Greece, Volume 11 (of 12)

Author: George Grote

Release Date: February 21, 2020 [EBook #61469]

Language: English

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Transcriber's note
Table of Contents

HISTORY OF GREECE.

BY

GEORGE GROTE, Esq.

VOL. XI.

REPRINTED FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

329 AND 331 PEARL STREET.

1880.

[p. i]

PREFACE TO VOL. XI.

This History has already occupied a far larger space than I at first intended or

anticipated.

Nevertheless, to bring it to the term marked out in my original preface—the close of

the generation contemporary with Alexander, on whose reign we are about to enter—one
more Volume will yet be required.

That Volume will include a review of Plato and Aristotle, so far as the limits of a

general history permit. Plato, indeed, belonging to the period already described, is
partially noticed in the present Volume; at an epoch of his life when, as counsellor of
Dionysius II., he exercised positive action on the destinies of Syracuse. But I thought it
more convenient to reserve the appreciation of his philosophical character and influence,
until I could present him in juxtaposition with his pupil Aristotle, whose maturity falls
within the generation now opening. These two distinguished thinkers will be found to
throw light reciprocally upon each other, in their points both of contrast and similarity.

G. G.

London, April 15, 1853.

[p. iii]

[p. iv]

CONTENTS.

VOL. XI.

PART II.

CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.

CHAPTER LXXXIII.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS (continued). — FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY BY

PESTILENCE BEFORE SYRACUSE, DOWN TO THE DEATH OF DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. B. C. 394-
367.

Frequent occurrence of pestilence among the Carthaginians, not extending to the Greeks in Sicily. — Mutiny

among the mercenaries of Dionysius — Aristoteles their commander is sent away to Sparta. — Difficulties
of Dionysius arising from his mercenaries — heavy burden of paying them. — Dionysius reëstablishes
Messênê with new inhabitants. — Conquests of Dionysius in the interior of Sicily. — Alarm at Rhegium —
Dionysius attacks the Sikel town of Tauromenium — desperate defence of the Sikels — Dionysius is
repulsed and nearly slain. — Agrigentum declares against Dionysius — reäppearance of the Carthaginian
army under Magon. — Expedition of Dionysius against Rhegium — he fails in surprising the town — he
concludes a truce for one year. — Magon again takes the field at Agyrium — is repulsed by Dionysius —
truce concluded. — Dionysius again attacks Tauromenium — captures it, drives out the Sikels, and plants
new inhabitants. — Plans of Dionysius against the Greek cities in Southern Italy — great pressure upon
these cities from the Samnites and Lucanians of the interior. — Alliance contracted among the Italiot Greeks,
for defence both against the Lucanians and against Dionysius — Dionysius allies himself with the Lucanians.
— Dionysius attacks Rhegium — the Rhegines save the Krotoniate fleet — fleet of Dionysius ruined by a
storm. — Defeat of the inhabitants of Thurii by the Lucanians — Leptines with the fleet of Dionysius off
Läus — his conduct towards the survivors. — Fresh expedition of Dionysius against the Italiot Greeks —
his powerful armament — he besieges Kaulonia. — United army of the Italiot Greeks advances to relieve the
place — their advanced guard is defeated, and Helôris the general slain. — The whole army is defeated and
captured by Dionysius. — Generous lenity of Dionysius towards the prisoners. — Dionysius besieges
Rhegium — he grants to them peace on severe terms. — He captures Kaulonia and Hipponium — inhabitants
transported to Syracuse — territory made over to Lokri. — Artifices of Dionysius to impoverish and disarm
the Rhegines. — He besieges Rhegium — desperate defence of the town under the general Phyton —
Surrender of the place from famine, after a blockade of eleven months. — Cruel treatment of Phyton by
Dionysius. — Strong sympathy excited by the fate of Phyton. — Rhegium dismantled — all the territory of
the southern Calabrian peninsula united to Lokri. — Peace of Antalkidas — ascendent position of Sparta and
of Dionysius — Kroton conquered by Dionysius — Splendid robe taken from the temple of Hêrê. —
Schemes of Dionysius for transmarine colonies and conquests, in Epirus and Illyria. — Dionysius plunders
the coast of Latium and Etruria, and the rich temple of Agylla. — Immense power of Dionysius — his
poetical compositions. — Olympic festival of 384 B. C., the first after the peace of Antalkidas — Dionysius
sends thither a splendid legation — also chariots to run — and poetical compositions to be recited. —
Feelings of the crowd at the festival — Dikon of Kaulonia. — Harangue of Lysias at the festival against
Dionysius, in reference to the political state of the Grecian world, and the sufferings of the enslaved Sicilians.
— Hatred of the past, and fear of the future conquests of Dionysius, both prevalent. — Lysias exhorts his
hearers to destroy the tents of the Syracusan legation at Olympia, as an act of retribution against Dionysius.
— Explosion of antipathy against the poems of Dionysius recited at Olympia — insults heaped upon his name
and person. — Excessive grief, wrath, and remorse, of Dionysius on hearing of this manifestation against
him — his suspicions and cruelties. — Marked and singular character of the manifestation against Dionysius.
— Plato visits Syracuse — is harshly treated by Dionysius — acquires great influence over Dion. — New
constructions and improvements by Dionysius at Syracuse. — Intention of Dionysius to renew the war with
Carthage. — War with Carthage — Victory of Dionysius over the Carthaginian army under Magon. —
Second battle with the Carthaginians at Kronium, in which Dionysius is defeated with terrible loss. — He
concludes peace with Carthage, on terms very unfavorable to himself: all the territory west of the river
Halykus is surrendered to Carthage: he covenants to pay tribute to Carthage. — Affairs of Southern Italy:
wall across the Calabrian peninsula projected, but not executed. — Relations of Dionysius with Central
Greece. — New war undertaken by Dionysius against Carthage. He is at first successful, but is ultimately
defeated near Lilybæum, and forced to return home. — Dionysius gains the prize of tragedy at the Lenæan
festival at Athens. His joy at the news. He dies of fever soon afterwards. — Character of Dionysius.

1-54

CHAPTER LXXXIV.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS AFTER THE DEATH OF THE ELDER DIONYSIUS — DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER

— AND DION.

Family left by Dionysius at his death. — Dion — his connection with the Dionysian family. — Personal

character of Dion. — Plato, Dion, and the Pythagorean philosophers. — Extraordinary influence of Plato
upon Dion. — Dion learns to hate the Dionysian despotism — he conceives large political and reformatory

[p. v]

[p. vi]

[p. vii]

views. — Alteration of habits in Dion — he brings Plato into communication with Dionysius. — Dion
maintains the good opinion and confidence of Dionysius, until the death of the latter — his visits to
Peloponnesus. — Death of the elder Dionysius — divergences of interest between the two lines of family. —
The younger Dionysius succeeds his father — his character. — Conduct of Dion — he submits to the
younger Dionysius — gives him frank and wholesome advice. — Dion acquires great influence and
estimation from Dionysius. — Recall of Philistus from exile. — Dion tries to work upon the mind of
Dionysius towards a freer political government and mental improvement. — His earnest exhortations
produced considerable effect, inspiring Dionysius with a strong desire to see and converse with Plato. —
Invitation sent to Plato, both by Dion and by Dionysius. — Hesitation of Plato — he reluctantly consents to
visit Syracuse. — Plato visits Syracuse — unbounded deference and admiration manifested towards him at
first by Dionysius — Fear and hatred felt by Philistus and other courtiers. — Injudicious manner in which
Plato dealt with Dionysius. — Strenuous exhortations addressed by Plato and Dion to Dionysius, to reform
himself. — Plato damps the inclination of Dionysius towards Political good. — If Plato had tried to impel
Dionysius towards a good practical use of his power, Dionysius might at that time have obeyed him with the
aid of Dion. — Difficulties which they would have encountered in trying to realize beneficent projects. —
Intrigues by Philistus and others to set Dionysius against Plato and Dion. — Relations between Dionysius and
Dion — natural foundation for jealousy on the part of Dionysius. — Dionysius loses his inclinations towards
political improvements — comes to hate Dion. — Banishment of Dion from Syracuse to Italy. — Dionysius
retains Plato in the acropolis, but treats him well, and tries to conciliate his esteem. — He dismisses Plato —
then recalls him — second visit of Plato to Syracuse — his dissatisfaction — Dionysius refuses to recall
Dion. — Dionysius confiscates the property of Dion — mortification of Plato, who with difficulty obtains
leave to depart from Syracuse. — Resolution of Dion to avenge himself on Dionysius, and to force his way
back to Syracuse by arms. — Plato rejoins Dion in Peloponnesus — exasperation of Dion — Dionysius gives
his sister Aretê, the wife of Dion, in marriage to Timokrates. — Means of auxiliaries of Dion — Plato — the
Academy — Alkimenes. Dion musters his force at Zakynthus. — Small force of Dion against the prodigious
power of Dionysius. Resolution of Dion to conquer or perish. — Circumstances which told against
Dionysius — discontent at Syracuse. — Herakleides exiled from Syracuse — he projects an attack upon
Dionysius, at the same time as Dion. — Weakness of character — dissolute and drunken habits — of
Dionysius himself. — Alarm of the soldiers of Dion at Zakynthus, when first informed that they were going
against Dionysius. — Eclipse of the moon — religious disquietude of the soldiers — they are reassured by
the prophet Miltas — fortunate voyage from Zakynthus to Sicily. — Dion lands at Herakleia — he learns that
Dionysius with a large fleet has just quitted Syracuse for Italy. — March of Dion from Herakleia to
Syracuse. — Dion crosses the river Anapus, and approaches the gates of Syracuse. — Mistake of
Timokrates, left as governor of Syracuse in the absence of Dionysius. — General rising of the Syracusans to
welcome and assist Dion. Timokrates is obliged to evacuate the city, leaving Ortygia and Epipolæ garrisoned.
— Entry of Dion into Achradina — joy of the citizens — he proclaims liberty. — Dion presents himself at
the Pentapyla in front of Ortygia — challenges the garrison of Ortygia to come out and fight — is chosen
general by the Syracusans, with his brother Megakles. — Dion captures Epipolæ and Euryalus. He erects a
cross-wall from sea to sea, to block up Ortygia. — Return of Dionysius to Syracuse. He tries to negotiate
with Dion and the Syracusans — deceives them by fallacious propositions. — Sudden sally made by
Dionysius to surprise the blockading wall — great bravery, efforts, and danger of Dion — he at length
repulses the attack and recovers the wall. — Ortygia is again blocked up by land — efforts of Dionysius
with his fleet — arrival of Herakleides from Peloponnesus with a fleet to coöperate against Dionysius. —
Arrival of Philistus with his fleet to the aid of Dionysius. Battle in the Great Harbor between the fleet of
Philistus and that of the Syracusans — Philistus is defeated and slain. — Intrigues of Dionysius against Dion
in Syracuse. — Relationship of Dion to the Dionysian dynasty — suspicions entertained against him by the
Syracusans — his haughty manners. Rivalry of Herakleides. — Herakleides is named admiral. Dion causes
him to be deposed, and then moves himself for his re-appointment. — Intrigues and calumnies raised against
Dion in Syracuse, by the management of Dionysius. — Mistrust of Dion by the Syracusans, mainly in
consequence of his relationship to the Dionysian family. Calumnies of Sôsis. — Farther propositions of
Dionysius. He goes away from Ortygia to Italy, leaving his son Apollokrates in command of the garrison. —
Increased dissension between Dion and Herakleides — Dion is deposed and his soldiers deprived of the pay
due to them — new generals are named. — Dion is forced to retreat from Syracuse — bad conduct of the
new generals and of the people towards his soldiers. — Dion reaches Leontini — the Leontines stand by him
against the Syracusans — arrival of Nypsius with a reinforcement to the Dionysian garrison in Ortygia. —
Advantage gained by Herakleides and the Syracusans over Nypsius as he came into Ortygia — extravagant
confidence in Syracuse — Nypsius sallies from Ortygia, and forces his way into Neapolis and Achradina. —
Danger and distress of the Syracusans — they send to Leontini to invoke the aid of Dion. — Assembly at
Leontini — pathetic address of Dion. — Reluctance of Herakleides to let Dion into Syracuse — renewed
assault from Nypsius — unanimous prayers now sent to invite Dion. — Entrance of Dion into Syracuse —
he draws up his troops on Epipolæ. Frightful condition of the city. — Dion drives back Nypsius and his
troops into Ortygia — he extinguishes the flames, and preserves Syracuse. — Universal gratitude on the part
of the Syracusans, towards Dion. Herakleides and Theodotes throw themselves upon his mercy. — Dion
pardons Herakleides — his exposition of motives. — Remarkable features in this act of Dion. — Dion re-
establishes the blockade of Ortygia, and ransoms the captives taken. — Dion is named general on land, at the
motion of Herakleides, who is continued in his command of the fleet. — Attempt to supersede Dion through
Gæsylus the Spartan — good conduct of Gæsylus. — Surrender of Ortygia by Apollokrates to Dion. —
Entry of Dion into Ortygia — restoration of his wife — speedy death of his son. — Conduct of Dion in the
hour of triumph. — Suspicions previously entertained respecting Dion — that he was aiming at the
despotism for himself — confirmed by his present conduct. — He retains his dictatorial power, with the
fortress and garrison of Ortygia — he grants no freedom to Syracuse. — Intention of Dion to constitute
himself king, with a Lykurgean scheme of government and discipline. — Mistake of Dion as to his position.
— Dion takes no step to realise any measure of popular liberty. — Opposition raised against Dion by
Herakleides — impatience of the Syracusans to see the demolition of the Dionysian strongholds and funeral
monument. — Dion causes Herakleides to be privately slain. — Increased oppressions of Dion — hatred
entertained against him in Syracuse. — Disquietude and irritability of Dion on account of his unpopularity. —
Conspiracy of Kallippus against him — artifices and perjury. — Kallippus causes Dion to be assassinated. —

[p. vii]

[p. viii]

[p. ix]

Life, sentiments, and altered position, of Dion.

54-128

CHAPTER LXXXV.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS DOWN TO THE CLOSE OF THE EXPEDITION OF TIMOLEON. B. C. 353-336.

Position and prospects of Kallippus, after the assassination of Dion. — He continues master of Syracuse more

than a year. His misrule. Return of Hipparinus son of Dionysius to Syracuse. Expulsion of Kallippus. —
Miserable condition of Syracuse and Sicily, as described by Plato. — Plato’s recommendations fruitless —
state of Syracuse grows worse. Dionysius returns to Ortygia, expelling Hipparinus. — Drunken habits of the
Dionysian princes. — Lokri — dependency and residence of the younger Dionysius. — Sufferings of the
Italiot Greeks from the Lucanians and Bruttians of the interior. — Dionysius at Lokri — his unpopularity and
outrageous misrule — cruel retaliation of the Lokrians upon his female relatives. — Distress of the
Syracusans — fresh danger from Carthage. They invoke the aid of Hiketas — in concert with Hiketas, they
send to entreat aid from Corinth. Secret alliance of Hiketas with the Carthaginians — he conspires to defeat
the application to Corinth. — Application from Syracuse favorably received by the Corinthians — vote
passed to grant aid. — Difficulty in finding a Corinthian leader — most of the leading citizens decline —
Timoleon is proposed and chosen. — Antecedent life and character of Timoleon. — His conduct towards his
brother Timophanes, whose life he saves in battle. — Timophanes makes himself despot, and commits gross
oppression — Timoleon with two companions puts him to death. — Beneficial effects of the act upon
Corinth — sentiment towards Timoleon. — Bitter reproach of Timoleon by his mother. — Intense mental
distress of Timoleon. He shuts himself up and retires from public life. — Different judgments of modern and
ancient minds on the act of Timoleon. Comments of Plutarch. — Timoleon is appointed commander to
Syracuse — he accepts the command — admonition of Telekleides. — Preparations made by Timoleon —
his scanty means — he engages some of the Phokian mercenaries. — Bad promise of the expedition —
second message from Hiketas, withdrawing himself from the Corinthian alliance, and desiring that no troops
might be sent to Sicily. — Timoleon sets out for Sicily with a small squadron — favorable omens from the
gods. — Timoleon arrives at Rhegium — is prevented from reaching Sicily by a Carthaginian fleet of
superior force — insidious message from Hiketas. — Stratagem of Timoleon to get across to Sicily, in
collusion with the Rhegines. — Public meeting in Rhegium — Timoleon and the Carthaginians both present
at it — long speeches, during which Timoleon steals away, contriving to send his fleet over to Sicily. —
Timoleon at Tauromenium in Sicily — formidable strength of his enemies — despots in Sicily —
despondency in Syracuse. — Success of Timoleon at Adranum. He surprises and defeats the troops of
Hiketas, superior in number. — Improved position and alliances of Timoleon — he marches up to the walls
of Syracuse. — Position of Dionysius in Ortygia — he resolves to surrender that fortress to Timoleon,
stipulating for safe conveyance and shelter at Corinth. — Timoleon sends troops to occupy Ortygia,
receiving Dionysius into his camp. — Timoleon sends news of his success to Corinth, with Dionysius
himself in a trireme. — Great effect produced at Corinth — confidence of the citizens — reinforcement sent
to Timoleon. — Sight of the fallen Dionysius at Corinth — impression made upon the Greeks — numerous
visitors to see him. Conversation with Aristoxenus. — Immense advantage derived by Timoleon from the
possession of Ortygia — numerous stores found in it. — Large Carthaginian army under Magon arrives to
aid in attacking Ortygia. Defeated by Neon, during the absence of Magon and Hiketas. Neon acquires
Achradina, and joins it by a line of wall to Ortygia. — Return of Magon and Hiketas to Syracuse — increased
difficulty of their proceedings, since the victory of Neon. — Return of Timoleon to Syracuse — fortunate
march and arrival of the Corinthian reinforcement. — Messênê declares in favor of Timoleon. — He
establishes his camp near Syracuse. — Magon distrusts Hiketas and his position at Syracuse — he suddenly
withdraws his army and fleet, leaving Syracuse altogether. — Timoleon masters Epipolæ and the whole city
of Syracuse — Hiketas is obliged to escape to Leontini. — Languid defence made by the troops of Hiketas.
— Great effect produced by the news that Timoleon was master of Syracuse. — Extraordinary admiration
felt towards Timoleon — especially for the distinguished favor shown to him by the gods. — Timoleon
ascribes all his success to the gods. — Temptations of Timoleon in the hour of success — easy possibility
of making himself despot of Syracuse. — Timoleon invited the Syracusans to demolish the Dionysian
stronghold in Ortygia. — He erects courts of justice on the site. — Desolate condition of Syracuse and other
cities in Sicily. Recall of exiles. Application on the part of Timoleon and the Syracusans to Corinth. —
Commissioners sent from Corinth to Syracuse — they revive the laws and democracy enacted by Dioklês —
but with various changes and additions. — Poverty at Syracuse — necessity for inviting new colonists. —
Large body of new colonists assembled at Corinth for Sicily. — Influx of new colonists into Sicily from all
quarters. — Relief to the poverty of Syracuse. — Successes of Timoleon against Hiketas, Leptines, and
other despots in Sicily — Hiketas invites the Carthaginians again to invade Sicily. — The Carthaginians land
in Sicily with a vast army, including a large proportion of native troops. — Timoleon marches from Syracuse
against the Carthaginians — mutiny of a portion of his mercenaries under Thrasius — Timoleon marches
into the Carthaginian province — omen about the parsley. — He encounters the Carthaginian army while
passing the Krimêsus. War chariots in their front — Timoleon orders his cavalry to charge. — Strenuous
battle between the infantry of Timoleon and the native Carthaginian infantry. Terrible storm — complete
victory of Timoleon. — Severe loss of the Carthaginians in the battle, especially of their native troops. Booty
collected by the soldiers of Timoleon. — Discouragement and terror among the defeated army as well as at
Carthage itself. — Great increase of glory to Timoleon — favor of the gods shown to him in the battle. —
Timoleon returns to Syracuse — he dismisses Thrasius and the mercenaries who had deserted him — he
sends them out of Sicily — their fate. — Success of Timoleon against Hiketas and Mamerkus. — Victory
gained by Timoleon over Hiketas, at the river Damurias. — Timoleon attacks Hiketas and Leontini. The place
(with Hiketas in person) is surrendered to Timoleon by the garrison. Hiketas and his family are put to death.
— Timoleon gains a victory over Mamerkus — he concludes peace with the Carthaginians. — Timoleon
conquers and takes prisoners Mamerkus and Hippon. Mamerkus is condemned by the Syracusan public
assembly. — Timoleon puts down all the despots in Sicily. — Timoleon lays down his power at Syracuse.
— Gratitude and reward to him by the Syracusans. — Great influence of Timoleon, even after he had laid

[p. x]

[p. xi]

down his power. — Immigration of new Greek settlers into Sicily, to Gela, Agrigentum, Kamarina, etc. —
Value and importance of the moral ascendency enjoyed by Timoleon, in regulating these new settlements. —
Numerous difficulties which he would be called upon to adjust. — Residence of Timoleon at Syracuse —
chapel to the goddess Automatia. — Arrival of the blind Timoleon in the public assembly of Syracuse during
matters of grave and critical discussion. — Manner in which Timoleon bore contradiction in the public
assembly — his earnest anxiety to ensure freedom of speech against himself. — Uncorrupted moderation
and public spirit of Timoleon. — Xenophontic ideal — command over willing free men — qualities, positive
as well as negative, of Timoleon. — Freedom and comfort diffused throughout all Sicily for twenty-four
years, until the despotism of Agathokles. — Death and obsequies of Timoleon. — Proclamation at his funeral
— monument to his honor. — Contrast of Dion and Timoleon.

128-197

CHAPTER LXXXVI.

CENTRAL GREECE: THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP OF MACEDON TO THE BIRTH OF ALEXANDER.

359-356 B. C.

Central Greece resumed. — State of Central Greece in 360-359 B. C. — Degradation of Sparta. — Megalopolis

— Messênê — their fear of Sparta — no central action in Peloponnesus. — Corinth, Sikyon, etc. —
Comparatively good condition of Athens. — Power of Thebes. — Extinction of the free cities of Bœotia by
the Thebans — repugnant to Grecian feeling. — Thessaly — despots of Pheræ. — Alexander of Pheræ —
his cruelties — his assassination. — Tisiphonus despot of Pheræ — loss of power in the Pheræan dynasty.
— Macedon — reign and death of Perdikkas. — Philip as a youth at Thebes — ideas there acquired —
foundation laid of his future military ability. — Condition of Philip at the death of Perdikkas. —
Embarrassments and dangers with which he had to contend. — Macedonian government. — Proceedings of
Philip against his numerous enemies. His success — Thracians — Athenians. — He evacuates Amphipolis.
He defeats Argæus and the Athenians — his mild treatment of Athenian prisoners. — Philip makes peace
with Athens — renounces his claim to Amphipolis. — Victories of Philip over the Pæonians and Illyrians. —
Amphipolis evacuated by Philip — the Athenians neglect it. — State of Eubœa — the Thebans foment revolt
and attack the island — victorious efforts of Athens. — Surrender of the Chersonese to Athens. — Social
War — Chios, Kos, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. — Causes of the Social War — conduct of
the Athenians. — Synod at Athens. — Athens acts more for her own separate interests, and less for that of
her allies — her armaments on service — badly paid mercenaries — their extortions. — The four cities
declare themselves independent of Athens — interference of the Karian Mausôlus. — Great force of the
revolters — armament despatched by Athens against Chios — repulse of the Athenians, and death of
Chabrias. — Farther armaments of Athens — Iphikrates, Timotheus, and Chares — unsuccessful operations
in the Hellespont, and quarrel between the generals. — Iphikrates and Timotheus are accused by Chares at
Athens — Iphikrates is acquitted, Timotheus is fined and retires from Athens. — Arrogance and unpopularity
of Timotheus, attested by his friend Isokrates. — Exile of Timotheus — his death soon afterwards. —
Iphikrates no more employed — great loss to Athens in these two generals. — Expedition of Chares —
Athens makes peace with her revolted allies, recognizing their full autonomy. — End of the Social War —
great loss of power to Athens. — Renewed action of Philip. He lays siege to Amphipolis. — The
Amphipolitans send to ask assistance from Athens — manœuvres of Philip to induce Athens not to interfere.
— The Athenians determine not to assist Amphipolis — their motives — importance of this resolution. —
Capture of Amphipolis by Philip, through the treason of a party in the town. — Importance of Amphipolis to
Philip — disappointment of the Athenians at his breach of promise. — Philip amuses the Athenians with false
assurances — he induces them to reject advances from the Olynthians — proposed exchange of Pydna for
Amphipolis. — Philip acts in a hostile manner against Athens — he conquers Pydna and Potidæa — gives
Potidæa to the Olynthians — remissness of the Athenians. — Increase of the power of Philip — he founds
Philippi, opens gold mines near Mount Pangæus, and derives large revenues from them. — Marriage of Philip
with Olympias — birth of Alexander the Great.

197-241

CHAPTER LXXXVII.

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SACRED WAR TO THAT OF THE OLYNTHIAN WAR.

Causes of the Sacred War — the Amphiktyonic assembly. — Political complaint brought before the assembly,

first by Thebes against Sparta. — Next, by Thebes against the Phokians. The Phokians are condemned and
heavily fined. — The assembly pass a vote consecrating the Phokian territory to Apollo. — Resolution of the
Phokians to resist — Philomelus their leader. — Question of right raised as to the presidency of the temple
— old right of the Phokians against that of the Delphians and the Amphiktyons. — Active measures taken by
Philomelus. He goes to Sparta — obtains aid from king Archidamus. He seizes Delphi — defeats the
Lokrians. — Philomelus fortifies the temple — levies numerous mercenaries — tries to conciliate Grecian
sentiment. The Grecian world divided. — Philomelus tries to retain the prophetic agency — conduct of the
Pythia. — Battles of Philomelus against the Lokrians — his success. — Exertions of the Thebans to raise a
confederacy against the Phokians. — Danger of the Phokians — they take part of the treasures of the
temple, in order to pay a mercenary force. — Numerous mercenaries employed by the Phokians — violence
and ferocity of the war — defeat and death of Philomelus. — Onomarchus general of the Phokians — he
renews the war — his power by means of the mercenaries. — Violent measures of Onomarchus — he
employs the treasures of the temple to scatter bribes through the various cities. — Successes of
Onomarchus — he advances as far as Thermopylæ — he invades Bœotia — is repulsed by the Thebans. —
The Thebans send a force under Pammenes to assist Artabazus in Asia Minor. — Conquest of Sestos by
Chares and the Athenians. — Intrigues of Kersobleptes against Athens — he is compelled to cede to her his
portion of the Chersonese — Athenian settlers sent thither, as well as to Samos. — Activity and constant

[p. xii]

[p. xiii]

progress of Philip — he conquers Methônê — remissness of Athens. — Philip marches into Thessaly against
the despots of Pheræ. — Great power of Onomarchus and the Phokians — plans of Athens and Sparta —
the Spartans contemplate hostilities against Megalopolis. — First appearance of Demosthenes as a public
adviser in the Athenian assembly. — Parentage and early youth of Demosthenes — wealth of his father —
dishonesty of his guardians. — Youth of Demosthenes — sickly and feeble constitution — want of physical
education and bodily vigor. — Training of Demosthenes for a speaker — his instructors — Isæus — Plato
— his devoted study of Thucydides. — Indefatigable efforts of Demosthenes to surmount his natural defects
as a speaker. — Value set by Demosthenes upon action in oratory. His mind and thoughts — how formed.
— He becomes first known as a logographer or composer of speeches for litigants. — Phokion — his
antithesis and rivalry with Demosthenes — his character and position — his bravery and integrity. — Lasting
hold acquired by his integrity on the public of Athens. — Number of times that he was elected general. —
His manner of speaking — effective brevity — contempt of oratory. — His frankness — his contempt of the
Athenian people — his imperturbability — his repulsive manners. — Phokion and Eubulus the leaders of the
peace-party, which represented the strongly predominant sentiment at Athens. — Influence of Phokion
mischievous during the reign of Philip — at that time Athens might have prevailed over Macedonia. —
Change in the military spirit of Greece since the Peloponnesian war. Decline of the citizen soldiership:
increased spread of mercenary troops. Contrast between the Periklean and the Demosthenic citizen. —
Decline of military readiness also among the Peloponnesian allies of Sparta. — Multiplication of mercenary
soldiers — its mischievous consequences — necessity of providing emigration. — Deterioration of the
Grecian military force occurred at the same time with the great development of the Macedonian force. —
Rudeness and poverty of the Macedonians — excellent material for soldiers — organizing genius of Philip.
— First parliamentary harangue of Demosthenes — on the Symmories — alarm felt about Persia. — Positive
recommendations in the speech — mature thought and sagacity which they imply. — His proposed
preparation and scheme for extending the basis of the Symmories. — Spirit of the Demosthenic exhortations
— always impressing the necessity of personal effort and sacrifice as conditions of success. — Affairs of
Peloponnesus — projects of Sparta against Megalopolis — her attempt to obtain coöperation from Athens.
— Views and recommendations of Demosthenes — he advises that Athens shall uphold Messênê and
Megalopolis. — Philip in Thessaly — he attacks Lykophron of Pheræ, who calls in Onomarchus and the
Phokians — Onomarchus defeats Philip. — Successes of Onomarchus in Bœotia — maximum of the
Phokian power. — Philip repairs his forces and marches again into Thessaly — his complete victory over the
Phokians — Onomarchus is slain. — Philip conquers Pheræ and Pagasæ — becomes master of all Thessaly
— expulsion of Lykophron. — Philip invades Thermopylæ — the Athenians send a force thither and arrest
his progress. Their alarm at this juncture, and unusual rapidity of movement. — Phayllus takes the command
of the Phokians — third spoliation of the temple — revived strength of the Phokians — malversation of the
leaders. — War in Peloponnesus — the Spartans attack Megalopolis — interference of Thebes. — Hostilities
with indecisive result — peace concluded — autonomy of Megalopolis again recognized. — Ill success of
the Phokians in Bœotia — death of Phayllus, who is succeeded by Phalækus. — The Thebans obtain money
from the Persian king. — Increased power and formidable attitude of Philip. Alarm which he now begins to
inspire throughout the Grecian world. — Philip acquires a considerable navy — importance of the Gulf of
Pagasæ to him — his flying squadrons annoy the Athenian commerce and coast. — Philip carries on war in
Thrace — his intrigues among the Thracian princes. — He besieges Heræon Teichos: alarm at Athens: a
decree is passed to send out a fleet: Philip falls sick: the fleet is not sent. — Popularity of the mercenary
general Charidemus — vote in his favor proposed by Aristokrates — speech composed by Demosthenes
against it. — Languor of the Athenians — the principal peace-leaders, Eubulus, Phokion, etc., propose
nothing energetic against Philip — Demosthenes undertakes the duty. — First Philippic of Demosthenes,
352-351 B. C. — remarks and recommendations of the first Philippic. Severe comments on the past apathy
of the people. — He insists on the necessity that citizens shall serve in person, and proposes the formation of
an acting fleet and armament. — His financial propositions. — Mischiefs of the past negligence and want of
preparation — harm done by the mercenary unpaid armaments, serving without citizens. — Characteristics
of the first Philippic — prudent advice and early warnings of Demosthenes. — Advice of Demosthenes not
carried into effect: no serious measures adopted by Athens. — Opponents of Demosthenes at Athens —
speakers in the pay of Philip — alarm about the Persian king still continues.

241-319

CHAPTER LXXXVIII.

EUBOIC AND OLYNTHIAN WARS.

Change of sentiments at Olynthus — the Olynthians afraid of Philip — they make peace with Athens. —

Unfriendly feelings of Philip towards Olynthus — ripening into war in 350 B. C. — Fugitive half-brothers of
Philip obtain shelter at Olynthus. — Intrigues of Philip in Olynthus — his means of corruption and of
fomenting intestine discord. — Conquest and destruction of the Olynthian confederate towns by Philip,
between 350-347 B. C. terrible phenomena. — Philip attacks the Olynthians and Chalkidians — beginning of
the Olynthian war, 350 B. C. — The Olynthians conclude alliance with Athens. — The Athenians contract
alliance with Olynthus — earliest Olynthiac speech of Demosthenes. — The Second Olynthiac is the earliest
— its tone and tenor. — Disposition to magnify the practical effect of the speeches of Demosthenes — his
true position — he is an opposition speaker. — Philip continues to press the Olynthian confederacy —
increasing danger of Olynthus — fresh applications to Athens. — Demosthenes delivers another Olynthiac
oration — that which stands First, in the printed order. Its tenor. — Just appreciation of the situation by
Demosthenes. He approaches the question of the Theôric Fund. — Assistance sent by Athens to Olynthus.
Partial success against Philip. — Partial and exaggerated confidence at Athens. The Athenians lose sight of
the danger of Olynthus. Third Olynthiac of Demosthenes. — Tenor and substance of the third Olynthiac. —
Courage of Demosthenes in combating the prevalent sentiment. — Revolt of Eubœa from Athens. —
Intrigues of Philip in Eubœa. — Plutarch of Eretria asks aid from Athens. Aid is sent to him under Phokion,
though Demosthenes dissuades it — Treachery of Plutarch — danger of Phokion and the Athenians in
Eubœa — victory of Phokion at Tamynæ. — Dionysiac festival at Athens in March, 349 B. C. — Insult

[p. xiv]

[p. xv]

offered to Demosthenes by Meidias. — Reproaches against Demosthenes for having been absent from the
battle of Tamynæ — he goes over on service to Eubœa as a hoplite — he is named senator for 349-348 B. C.
— Hostilities in Eubœa, during 349-348 B. C. — Great efforts of Athens in 349 B. C. for the support of
Olynthus and the maintenance of Eubœa at the same time. — Financial embarrassments of Athens. Motion of
Apollodorus about the Theôric Fund. The assembly appropriate the surplus of revenue to military purposes.
— Apollodorus is indicted and fined. — The diversion of the Theôric Fund proves the great anxiety of the
moment at Athens. — Three expeditions sent by Athens to Chalkidikê in 349-348 B. C. according to
Philochorus. — Final success of Philip — capture of the Chalkidic towns and of Olynthus. — Sale of the
Olynthian prisoners — ruin of the Greek cities in Chalkidikê. — Cost incurred by Athens in the Olynthian
war. — Theôric Fund — not appropriated to war purposes until a little before the battle of Chæroneia. —
Views respecting the Theôric Fund. — It was the general Fund of Athens for religious festivals and worship
— distributions were one part of it — character of the ancient religious festivals. — No other branch of the
Athenian peace-establishment was impoverished or sacrificed to the Theôric expenditure. — The annual
surplus might have been accumulated as a war-fund — how far Athens is blamable for not having done so.
— Attempt of the Athenian property-classes to get clear of direct taxation by taking from the Theôric Fund.
— Conflict of these two feelings at Athens. Demosthenes tries to mediate between them — calls for
sacrifices from all, especially personal military service. — Appendix.

319-363

CHAPTER LXXXIX.

FROM THE CAPTURE OF OLYNTHUS TO THE TERMINATION OF THE SACRED WAR BY PHILIP.

Sufferings of the Olynthians and Chalkidians — triumph and festival of Philip. — Effect produced at Athens by

the capture of Olynthus — especially by the number of Athenian captives taken in it. — Energetic language
of Eubulus and Æschines against Philip. — Increased importance of Æschines. — Æschines as envoy of
Athens in Arcadia. — Increasing despondency and desire for peace at Athens. — Indirect overtures for
peace between Athens and Philip, even before the fall of Olynthus — the Eubœans — Phrynon, etc. — First
proposition of Philokrates — granting permission to Philip to send envoys to Athens. — Effect produced
upon the minds of the Athenians by their numerous captive citizens taken by Philip at Olynthus. — Mission
of the actor Aristodemus from the Athenians to Philip on the subject of the captives. Favorable dispositions
reported from Philip. — Course of the Sacred War — gradual decline and impoverishment of the Phokians.
Dissensions among themselves. — Party opposed to Phalækus in Phokis — Phalækus is deposed — he
continues to hold Thermopylæ with the mercenaries. — The Thebans invoke the aid of Philip to put down
the Phokians. — Alarm among the Phokians — one of the Phokian parties invites the Athenians to occupy
Thermopylæ — Phalækus repels them. — Increased embarrassment at Athens — uncertainty about
Phalækus and the pass of Thermopylæ. — The defence of Greece now turned on Thermopylæ —
importance of that pass both to Philip and to Athens. — Motion of Philokrates in the Athenian assembly — to
send envoys to Philip for peace. — Ten Athenian envoys sent — Demosthenes and Æschines among them.
— Journey of the envoys to Pella. — Statements of Æschines about the conduct of Demosthenes —
arrangements of the envoys for speaking before Philip. — Harangue addressed by Æschines to Philip about
Amphipolis. Failure of Demosthenes in his speech. — Answer of Philip — return of the envoys. — Review
of Æschines and his conduct, as stated by himself. — Philip offers peace on the terms of uti possidetis —
report made by the Athenian envoys on their return. — Proceedings in the Athenian assembly after the return
of the envoys — motions of Demosthenes. — Arrival of the Macedonian envoys at Athens — days fixed for
discussing the peace. — Resolution taken by the synod of allies at Athens. — Assemblies held to discuss the
peace, in presence of the Macedonian envoys. — Philokrates moves to conclude peace and alliance with
Philip. He proposes to exclude the Phokians specially. — Part taken by Æschines and Demosthenes — in
reference to this motion. Contradictions between them. — Æschines supported the motion of Philokrates
altogether — Demosthenes supported it also, except as to the exclusion of the Phokians — language of
Eubulus. — Motion of Philokrates carried in the assembly, for peace and alliance with Philip. — Assembly to
provide ratification and swearing of the treaty. — Question, Who were to be received as allies of Athens? —
about the Phokians and Kersobleptes. — The envoy of Kersobleptes is admitted, both by the Athenian
assembly and by the Macedonian envoys. — The Macedonian envoys formally refuse to admit the Phokians.
— Difficulty of Philokrates and Æschines. Their false assurances about the secret good intentions of Philip
towards the Phokians. — The Phokians are tacitly excluded — the Athenians and their allies swear to the
peace without them. — Ruinous mistake — false step of Athens in abandoning the Phokians —
Demosthenes did not protest against it at the time. — The oaths are taken before Antipater, leaving out the
Phokians. — Second embassy from Athens to Philip. — Demosthenes urges the envoys to go immediately to
Thrace in order to administer the oath to Philip — they refuse — their delay on the journey and at Pella. —
Philip completes his conquest of Thrace during the interval. — Embassies from many Grecian states at Pella.
— Consultations and dissensions among the Ten Athenian envoys — views taken by Æschines of the
ambassadorial duties. — The envoys address Philip — harangue of Æschines. — Position of Demosthenes in
this second embassy. — March of Philip to Thermopylæ — he masks his purposes, holding out delusive
hopes to the Phokians. Intrigues to gain his favor. — The envoys administer the oaths to Philip at Pheræ, the
last thing before their departure. They return to Athens. — Plans of Philip on Thermopylæ — corrupt
connivance of the Athenian envoys — letter from Philip which they brought back to Athens. — Æschines
and the envoys proclaim the Phokians to be excluded from the oaths with Philip — protest of Demosthenes
in the Senate, on arriving at Athens, against the behavior of his colleagues — vote of the Senate approving
his protest. — Public assembly at Athens — successful address made to it by Æschines — his false
assurances to the people. — The Athenian people believe the promises of Philokrates and Æschines —
protest of Demosthenes not listened to. — Letter of Philip favorably received by the assembly — motion of
Philokrates carried, decreeing peace and alliance with him forever. Resolution to compel the Phokians to give
up Delphi. — Letters of Philip to the Athenians, inviting them to send forces to join him at Thermopylæ —
policy of these letters — the Athenians do nothing. — Phokian envoys heard these debates at Athens —
position of Phalækus at Thermopylæ. — Dependence of the Phokians upon Athenian aid to hold

[p. xvi]

[p. xvii]

Thermopylæ. — News received at Thermopylæ of the determination of Athens against the Phokians. —
Phalækus surrenders Thermopylæ under convention to Philip. He withdraws all his forces. — All the towns
in Phokis surrender at discretion to Philip, who declares his full concurrence with the Thebans. — Third
embassy sent by the Athenians to Philip — the envoys return without seeing him, on hearing of the Phokian
convention. — Alarm and displeasure at Athens — motion of Kallisthenes for putting the city in a good state
of defence — Æschines and other Athenian envoys visit Philip in Phokis — triumphant celebration of Philip’s
success. — Fair professions of Philip to the Athenians, after his conquest of Thermopylæ: language of his
partisans at Athens. — The Amphiktyonic assembly is convoked anew. Rigorous sentence against the
Phokians. They are excluded from the assembly, and Philip is admitted in their place. — Ruin and
wretchedness of the Phokians. — Irresistible ascendency of Philip. He is named by the Amphiktyons
presiding celebrator of the Pythian festival of 346 B. C. — Great change effected by this peace in Grecian
political relations. Demosthenes and Æschines — proof of dishonesty and fraud in Æschines, even from his
own admissions. — This disgraceful peace was brought upon Athens by the corruption of her own envoys.
— Impeachment and condemnation of Philokrates. — Miserable death of all concerned in the spoliation of
the Delphian temple.

364-434

CHAPTER XC.

FROM THE PEACE OF 346 B. C. TO THE BATTLE OF CHÆRONEIA AND THE DEATH OF PHILIP.

Position of Philip after the conclusion of the Sacred War. — Sentiments of Demosthenes — he recommends

acquiescence in the peace, and recognition of the new Amphiktyonic dignity of Philip. — Sentiments of
Isokrates — his letter to Philip — his abnegation of free Hellenism. — Position of the Persian king Ochus —
his measures against revolters in Phenicia and Egypt. — Reconquest of Phenicia by Ochus — perfidy of the
Sidonian prince Tennes. — Reconquest of Egypt by the Persian force under Mentor and Bagoas. — Power
of Mentor as Persian viceroy of the Asiatic coast — he seizes Hermeias of Atarneus. — Peace between
Philip and the Athenians, continued without formal renunciation from 346-340 B. C. — Movements and
intrigues of Philip everywhere throughout Greece. — Disunion of the Grecian world — no Grecian city
recognized as leader. — Vigilance and renewed warnings of Demosthenes against Philip. — Mission of
Python to Athens by Philip — amendments proposed in the recent peace — fruitless discussions upon them.
— Dispute about Halonnesus. — The Athenians refuse to accept cession of Halonnesus as a favor, claiming
restitution of it as their right. — Halonnesus taken and retaken — reprisals between Philip and the Athenians.
— Movements of the philippizing factions at Megara — at Oreus — at Eretria. — Philip in Thrace —
disputes about the Bosphorus and Hellespont — Diopeithes commander for Athens in the Chersonese. Philip
takes part with the Kardians against Athens. Hostile collisions and complaints against Diopeithes. —
Accusations against Diopeithes at Athens by the philippizing orators — Demosthenes defends him — speech
on the Chersonese, and third Philippic. — Increased influence of Demosthenes at Athens — Athenian
expedition sent, upon his motion, to Eubœa — Oreus and Eretria are liberated, and Eubœa is detached from
Philip. — Mission of Demosthenes to the Chersonese and Byzantium — his important services in detaching
the Byzantines from Philip, and bringing them into alliance with Athens. — Philip commences the siege of
Perinthus — he marches through the Chersonesus — declaration of war by Athens against him. —
Manifesto of Philip, declaring war against Athens — Complaints of Philip against the Athenians — his policy
towards Athens — his lecture on the advantages of peace. — Open war between Philip and the Athenians.
— Siege of Perinthus by Philip. His numerous engines for siege — great scale of operations. Obstinacy of
the defence. The town is relieved by the Byzantines, and by Grecian mercenaries from the Persian satraps.
— Philip attacks Byzantium — danger of the place — it is relieved by the fleets of Athens, Chios, Rhodes,
etc. Success of the Athenian fleet in the Propontis under Phokion. Philip abandons the sieges both of
Perinthus and Byzantium. — Votes of thanks from Byzantium and the Chersonesus to Athens for her aid —
honors and compliments to Demosthenes. — Philip withdraws from Byzantium, concludes peace with the
Byzantines, Chians, and others, and attacks the Scythians. He is defeated by the Triballi, and wounded, on
his return. — Important reform effected by Demosthenes in the administration of the Athenian marine. —
Abuses which had crept into the trierarchy — unfair apportionment of the burthen — undue exemption
which the rich administrators had acquired for themselves. — Individual hardship, and bad public
consequences, occasioned by these inequalities. — Opposition offered by the rich citizens and by Æschines
to the proposed reform of Demosthenes — difficulties which he had to overcome. — His new reform
distributes the burthen of trierarchy equitably. — Its complete success. Improved efficiency of the naval
armaments under it. — New Sacred War commences in Greece. — Kirrha and its plain near Delphi
consecrated to Apollo, in the first Sacred War under Solon. — Necessity of a port at Kirrha, for the
convenience of visitors to Delphi. Kirrha grows up again, and comes into the occupation of the Lokrians of
Amphissa. — Relations between the Lokrians of Amphissa and Delphi — they had stood forward earnestly in
the former Sacred War to defend Delphi against the Phokians. — Amphiktyonic meeting at Delphi —
February, 339 B. C. Æschines one of the legates from Athens. — Language of an Amphissian speaker among
the Amphiktyons against At...