History of Geophysics: Volume 5-The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington

251 Pages·13.149 MB·English

History of Geophysics
VoluDte 5
C. StelVart GillDlor
Series Editor
The Earth, the Heavens
and the
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Edited by
Gregory A. Good
With a ForelVord by Maxine Singer,
President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington
American Geophysical Union
1994
LibraryofCongress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
TheEarth, the heavensand the CarnegieInstitutionofWashington/GregoryGood,
editor.
p. cm. - (Historyofgeophysics: v. 5)
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN0-87590-279-0
1. CarnegieInstitutionofWashington. 2. MountWilsonObservatory.
3. Geophysics---Research-UnitedStates. 4. Spacesciences---Research-
UnitedStates. 5. Astrophysics---Research-UnitedStates.
I. Good, Gregory. II. Series.
QC801.E36 1994
550'.7209753-dc20 93-46865
CIP
ISSN: 8755-1217
ISBN: 0-87590-279-0
Copyright 1994by the American Geophysical Union
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CONTENTS
Foreword
HistoryandScience atthe CarnegieInstitutionofWashington v
MaxineSinger, President,CIW
Preface ix
GregoryA. Good
Introduction
TheBreadth,Height, andDepthoftheGeosciencesandSpaceSciencesattheCarnegieInstitutionofWashington xi
GregoryA. Good
Early Years: Founding the CIW and Defining Geophysics
AndrewCarnegieandCharlesDoolittleWalcott:TheOriginandEarlyYearsoftheCarnegieInstitutionofWashington
EllisL. Yochelson
DevelopmentandPromotionoftheInitialScientificProgramfortheGeophysicalLaboratory 21
H. S. Yoder,Jr.
Visionofa GlobalPhysics: TheCarnegieInstitutionandtheFirstWorldMagneticSurvey 29
GregoryA. Good
VilhelmBjerknes'sDutyto ProduceSomethingClearandRealinMeteorologicalScience 37
RalphJewell
In the Field: The CIW and Expeditions
ClimateandHistory:RaphaelPumpelly'sGeoarcheologicalExpeditionstoTurkestan 47
PeggyChamplin
WeighingtheEarthfromaSublnarine:TheGravityMeasuringCruiseoftheU.S.S.S-21 53
NaomiOreskes
AmundsenandEdmonds:EntrepreneurialandInstitutionalExploration 69
S. M. SilvennanandMarionEdmondsSmith
ExpeditionsandtheCIW: COlnlnentsandContentions 79
RonaldE. Doel
The }Ieavens: The Mount Wilson Observatory
SharingaMountaintop:TheSmithsonianAstrophysicalObservatoryonMountWilson 89
R. S. Brashear
AFoxRaidingtheHedgehogs:HowHenryNorrisRussellGottoMt. Wilson 103
DavidH. DeVorkin
ConvertinganHypothesisintoaResearchProgram:T. C. Chamberlin,hisPlanetesimalHypothesis,andits EffectonResearchatthe
Mt. WilsonObservatory 113
N. S. Hetherington
WomenandWomen'sWorkatMt. WilsonObservatorybeforeWorldWarn 125
JohnLankford
COlnmentaryontheMt. WilsonPapers 129
OwenGingerich
Sounding the Ionosphere
TheBigStory:Tuve, Breit, andIonosphericSounding,1923-1928 133
C. StewartGillmor
BuildingaWashingtonNetworkfor AtmosphericResearch 143
BruceHevly
International Spin-offs ofCarnegieResearch
ToWatherooandBack:TheDTMinAustralia, 1911-1947 149
R. W. Home
SomeMemoriesoftheWatherooMagneticObservatory 161
W. D. Parkinson
ACanadianLifewith Geomagnetism: TheResearchofFrankT. Davies 165
J. E. KennedyandW. o. Kupsch
Dr. C.T. Kwei andtheCarnegieinChinain 1930sand 1940s 171
WangShen,LiangBaixian,andHuXinru
Post-War Geophysics at the CIW
ChoppingandChangingattheDTM 1946-1958:M. A. Tuve, RockMagnetistn,andIsotopeDating 173
H. E. LeGrand
Merle A. Tuve'sPost-WarGeophysics:EarlyExplosionSeismology 185
ThomasD. Cornell
IsotopeGeologyatCarnegie1950-1970:DatingEarthProcesses 215
L. T. Aldrich
Resources for Historical Research
ArchivalSourcesfortheHistoryofGeosciences 225
DeborahDay
SourcesfortheHistoryoftheCarnegieInstitutionofWashingtonattheOfficeofAdministration 229
JohnStrotn
TheCarnegieInstitutionofWashington'sContributionstothePhysicalSciences:ArchivalSourcesattheHuntingtonLibrary 231
R. S. Brashear
Sourcesfor HistoryofGeophysicsattheCenterfor HistoryofPhysics, AtnericanInstituteofPhysics 235
RonaldE. Doel
TheEarthandSpaceSciencesatCarnegie:APictorialSamplerfrotnthe FirstSixDecades 237
CotnpiledbyShaunJ. Hardy
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
Foreword
History and Science at the Carnegie Institution of Washington
In this very grand building that houses the Carnegie Thus weholdfundamental thatbasic scienceultimately
Institution of Washington, portraits and photographs of benefits humankind. Wedefend theinvestigator's freedom
Vannevar Bushand the other leaders who served in these ofenterpriseinresearch,andwebelieveinthepotentialof
rooms remind us ofourhistory. Only a few miles away is the largely independent single investigator, one who often
the campus ofourEarthand planetary scientists onBroad interactscloselywithothersinsmallandlooselyorganized
Branch Road, where a superb model of the Good Ship groups. We deem it crucial that our scientists be able to
Carnegieis displayed. Likewise,the halls ofour Observa take newand previously unplanned scientific directions at
tories inPasadena are lined withphotographs ofthe great little notice.
Carnegie astronomers from early in the century--a daily OurTrustees--Mr.Carnegie'srepresentativestoday-take
message to our young astronomers that the Institution seriouslyourheritageandourobligationto reinterpret that
expectsthemtocontinuethatgreatness. Butoursensitivity heritage in the light of present circumstances. When, for
to our history goes beyond suchsymbols. example, earlierthis year the Trustees began an extended
We are very satisfied and pleased that historians inter examination ofour posture and future directions in plant
estedinourearlydayshaveshownthatCarnegieInstitution biology,theirperspectiveswereenhancedbya serioushis
contributed importantly in preparing the way for the torical review ofthe ancestry ofour Department ofPlant
explosionofscienceinAmericaafter1940. TheInstitution Biology, presented both orally and in booklet form. The
earlyinthecentury filledaroleastheleadingpatronofthe case exemplified our conviction that our history is funda
nation's research. We recognize and honor this aspect of mental.
our past, thoughit offers very few parallels to ourpresent
situation. (We are no longer a "big fish in a small pond," CARNEGIE'S HISTORIANS
butratherthe opposite.) Some may be surprised to learn that Carnegie Institu
But if our place in the ovemll world of science is tion, which is now wholly engaged in the physical and
smaller,we sensethattheInstitutionstillhasa specialrole biological sciences, was once a major practitioner of the
to play. Weare favored byahealthyendoWment,although historical profession. Formany years, the Institutionoper
it is notlargeemoughto make itpossible to do everything ateda DepartmentofHistorical Research, basedin Wash
wewouldlike. Asneitherauniversity nora governmentor ington. Its leader from 1905 to 1928 was the renowned
industrialentity,wearelargelywithoutobligationtoothers historian J. Franklin Jameson--a giant in the evolution of
except to society at large. Thus we have an enviable the American Historical Association and its professional
independence to choose our own directions, one that few jownal,andtheprincipalfigureinestablishingtheNational
othersenjoy. Inreturn, ofcourse, wehaveanobligationto Archives. MuchoftheCarnegie Department's workunder
use it wisely. Jamesonwasnotinthepreparationofinterpretivehistories
How then should we use this freedom? Should we but rather in the exploring and opening up of material
competeinthearenasthatarewidely perceivedtobeatthe usefultofutureresearchers--preparingguidestodocuments
frontier'sedge,orshouldwechooserelativelyunpopulated in foreign archives bearing onu.S. history, for example.
scientific pathways? Are we risking our uniqueness if we Historian Morey Rothberg has shown that Jameson's
allowourrelianceonfederal moniestoincrease? Howpre reluctantresignationfromCarnegiewasprecededbystrong
cious is our historic leadership in astronomy when mea differences in outlook between Jameson and the then
sured against the costs for a new, very-large-diameter Carnegie president, John C. Merriam. Jameson firmly
telescope inChile? believedthat priorto offering interpretations, the historian
In facing such questions, absolutely fundamental to us should develop incontrovertible bedrocks of evidence;
is the bedrock set ofideas that we inherit from our past. Jameson'swas,thus,aseeming"scientific"viewofhistory
These derive from Mr. Carnegie's founding guidance as writing; but it was Meniam, the scientist, who urged
reinforced and shaped by our subsequent leaders and Jameson and his colleagues to develop conclusions early
scientists. Together, these ideas from our history establish and publishthem. It was a positionMeniamoftentookin
ouridentity. dealing withthe Institut~on'sscientists,outofconcernthat
Copyright American Geophysical Union
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
vi FOREWORD
Carnegie's investment in research could be lost if results I might add that on recent occasions I have been in
went unpublished (Historians and scientists seem to be a volvedwithpanelsorgroupsaddressingmulticulturalismin
lotalike; bothmustdecide whento punctuate data gather the cunlcula of American universities. In trying to find
ing by offering interpretations and syntheses.) ways to help scientists deal with that topic, I have in
AfterJameson's resignation, the Carnegieworkinu.s. general addressed the history of science and in particular
history was gradually replaced by a growing program in talkedaboutthemanyrootsworldwideofmodemscientific
middle-Americanarchaeology. thinking including anemphasis onArabcontributions; for
Meanwhile another giant--the pathfinding historian of ourknowledgeofthathistory,weareofcourseindebtedto
science, George Sarton--for more than three decades George Sarton.)
receiveda full salaryas a researchassociate ofthe Institu Sarton's intensity brings to mind Andrew Carnegie's
tion. Sarton came to America as a refugee from war-tom earlychargetotheInstitution--toseekoutthe"exceptional"
Belgiwnin1915and,afteraseriesofoverturestoCarnegie individual and to give that personopportunity for a life's
president Woodward, joined the Institution's payroll in workinresearchanddiscovery. Sarton,whowroteoftento
1918.HisplaceofworkwasHarvardUniversity'sWidener the successive presidents ofCarnegie Institution thanking
Library, whichoffereda superbcollectionofmaterials for them for support and asking for extra funds, in a 1923
his work. Sarton paid for his library privileges by giving appeal to president Merriam seemed to be reminding
lecture courses at Harvard; but he received no monetary MerriamofMr.Carnegie'swords (somethingthatpresent
stipend from Harvard for many years. day Carnegie scientists also do to theirpresident):
Saxtonspentmostofhis time gathering the knowledge
that became his encyclopedic survey Introduction to the Sometimesmenappear,extremelyspecializedones,who
HistoryofScience, whichwaspublishedinfive covers be could do very well a certainkind ofthing, but there is no
tween the years 1927 and 1948 as Carnegie Institution demand for it. These menare not ready to work so many
publication374.Hewrotethat "myappointedtask,thetask hours a day; they must needs give every thought oftheir
which justifies my existence, is to prove inductively the mind, every beatoftheir heart, everydreamoftheirsleep
essential unity of knowledge and the essential unity of to that special work; in fact, they are slaves to it.... Very
mankind." Thus, the massive text moved back and forth little would be needed to help them, butno help comes.
among the civilizations of Greece, Rome (and western
Europe),Islam,andtheFarEast; thegrandendeavorended MerriamactuallyneverdoubtedthatSartonwas indeed
withthe 14thcentury, having tappedSarton's lastreserves an exceptional scholar and that his work merited the
of stamina. His treatment was strongly chronological Institution's support. Even during the 1920s and 1930s,
because, Sarton once explained, although one cannot be whenthepurchasingpoweroftheInstitution'slargelyfixed
sure that a later event is influenced by a earlier one, the income was diluted by the doubling in price levels after
opposite cannot have occurred. Fewthings can be known World War I and by the general financial conditions,
so assuredly. monies were found to pay a full salary to Sarton and
Saxton was a heroic scholar, driven by a vision to provide some clerical assistance. In those days, such
establishthehistory ofscience as adiscipline. He created, clerical assistance was providedby the hiring ofRadcliffe
edited,andonoccasionkeptalivewithhis ownmoney the students to typecopiesofdocumentsandnotes. Startingin
journal Isis, which he regarded as the necessary comple 1929, the Institution also paid for several professional
ment to the volumes of the Introduction. Sarlon knew researchassistants, andtheeffortwas officiallydesignated
Greek,Latin,andthemodemEuropeanlanguages,andhad "Sectionofthe History ofScience." A Sartonassistant for
some reading ability in the orienta11anguages. At first he many yearswasAlexanderPogo, whosetasksincludedthe
reliedonassistantsto readArabic texts, butwhileworking gathering of notes for a never-published volume of the
onthe first volume ofthe Introduction, hecameto realize Introductiononthe 16thcentury. Pogo muchlaterbecame
thatthe dominanceofArabic as thelanguageofsciencein a familiar figure caring for the library and rare books at
the 9th-11th centuries dictated that he himself obtain Carnegie'sMountWilsonObservatory.Whenhediedafew
command of that language. Thus in mid-life, amid an yearsago,heleftaverygenerousbequesttotheInstitution,
incredibly busy workload, largely self-imposed, Sarton toeveryone'ssurpriseanddelight. Wewillprobablyhonor
systematicallylearned,andlaterregularlycorrespondedin, him by naming some portion of the to-he-refurbished
Arabic. offices of the Observatories in Pasadena in his honor.
Copyright American Geophysical Union
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
MAXINESINGER vii
Another, younger Sarton associate was I. Bernard Cohen, intheneededdirectionwithinthelimitedresourcesthatwe
who later succeeded Sartonas the editorofIsis. cancommit.
I am especially grateful, as a relative newcomer to the
THE HISTORICALREcORDS OFTHEINSTITUTION Institution, to Susan Vasquez and Ray Bowers, who not
We at Carnegie are trying to enhance the conditionof only tend the archives but are themselves living resources
our historical recoms and their accessibility to historians. ontheInstitution'shistory. Inparticular,Iwanttonotethat
Our archival files have been greatly improved in recent Ray has been instmmental in the preparation of this
years under the care of Susan Vasquez. Susan has been foreword,whichisadaptedfromanintroductorytalkIgave
helpedeachsummerbyvisitingworkerJohnStrom. Shaun atthestartofthesymposium "TheEarth,theHeavens,and
Hardy, thenewandverytalentedandenergetic librarianat theCarnegieInstitutionofWashington: HistoricalPerspec
Broad Branch Road, is plunging into the large task of tives after Ninety Years," held inWashington, D.C., June
properly organizing the archives of the Department of 15-17, 1992.
TerrestrialMagnetismandGeophysicalLaboratory. Mean
whileinPasadena,the files oftheObselVatorieshavebeen
transferredtotheHuntingtonLibraryundertheattentionof Maxine Singer
the trusted archivist and historian Ron Brashear. Much President
remainstobedone,butwearepledgedtocontinuemoving Carnegie InstitutionofWashington
Copyright American Geophysical Union
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
Copyright American Geophysical Union
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
Preface
This volume examines the history of the Carnegie evident in the table of contents, recur throughout the
Institution of Washington and its role in the evolution of volume.
the geosciences and astrophysics: important science in an From that point, it tooktwo years to invite speakers to
importantsetting. TheCarnegieInstitutionwouldcertainly the conference, form a coherent program, and find the
be on any short list of the two or three institutions most funding to make it happen, in June 1992. The articles
critical to the founding of these sciences. Moreover, the presented here are the result of further work, review and
sciencesoftheEarthandofnear-spacehavegrownincreas revision,andareatributetothesignificantsacrifices made
ingly importantinthe 20thcentury,yet theirhistoryis not by the authors and otherscholars.
nearly as well known as that of, for example, theoretical I wishto express my thanks first to thoseorganizations
physics or evolutionary biology. This volume intends to that supported me while I acted as clearing house for this
refocusattentionontheseessentialaspectsofscienceinour community effort. Much of the organizational work was
century. sandwiched between research forays during my sabbatical
The genesis ofthis volume took place in May 1988 at year from West Virginia University, 1990-1991, which I
the Spring Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, spent among congenial colleagues at the Institut fUr
during a brainstorming sessionaboutways to spotlightthe Geschichte der Natwwissenschaften, University of
history of geophysics. The idea of a thematic meeting, Hamburg, Germany. That year as a fellow of the
separate from the usual press of an AGU meeting or a Alexander-von-Humboldt Stiftung was critical to the
History ofScience Society meeting, was suggested. Later, success of the conference. The most important financial
while working in the archives ofthe Carnegie Institution, support for the conference itself came from the Carnegie
I wasintroducedtoMaxineSinger, thentherelativelynew Institution, which defrayed the expenses of most of the
president ofthe Institution. She was interested inwhether speakers. Several speakers were helped, too, by parts of
it would be possible to focus more attention by historians West Virginia University. W. D. Parkinson made the
ofscienceonthevariousactivitiesundertakenbyCarnegie secondhalfofhistripfromTasmaniacourtesyoftheWVU
scientistsovertheyears: notjustgeophysicsandastrophys Institute for the History of Technology and Industrial
ics, but also genetics, biophysics, and much more. InJuly Archeology,andWangShenwassupportedinhistripfrom
1990, with President Singer's support, about 20 scientists the People's Republic of China by the WVU Council of
and historians ofscience gathered for a planning meeting International Programs. It should also be noted that many
inWashington. We developed severallists ofthemes for a speakers paid their expenses out of pocket, an often
symposium. Onewasarrangedtopicallyby areas thathave unappreciated contributionto scholarship.
been investigated by Carnegie scientists: seismology and Lastly, though, I express my appreciation to the many
the structure of the Earth, tectonophysics, high pressure fine people at the CIW's administrative offices, at the
physics,cosmic rays, petrology,theageoftheEarth,solar GeophysicalLaboratory,andattheDepartmentofTerrestri
terrestrialrelationships,theSun'smagneticfield,andsoon. al Magnetism who nudged me and the process along at
A few themes also suggested other perspectives: the critical moments. They, along with the secretaries and
development of the infrastructure of science, styles of graduate students at WVU who did so much, deserve
research, administrationofscienceat frontiers, theroles of special credit, and should take muchsatisfactionin seeing
Carnegiescientistsinidentifyinganddevelopinginitiatives this volume in print. My heartfelt thanks to youall.
in the goo/space sciences, the building of institutions and
disciplines, the development ofprivate foundation support Gregory A. Good
of science, and the functioning of the Institution as a West Virginia University
surrogate for a national science policy body early in this Morgantown
century. These themes and topics, while not immediately Editor
IX
Copyright American Geophysical Union
History of Geophysics: Volume 5—The Earth, the Heavens and the Carnegie Institution of Washington
Introduction
The Breadth, Height, and Depth of the Geosciences and Space Sciences
at the Carnegie Institution of Washington
GREGORY A. GOOD
HistoryDepartment, WestVirginia University, Morgantown, WestVirginia26506
The Carnegie InstitutionofWashington (CIW), founded made regarding the interior architecture of the Earth, the
in 1902, was among the first privately funded scientific causeoftheEarth'smagnetic field, atmosphericdynamics,
researchinstitutionsinthe United States. It wasanexperi the ionosphere, and solar-tenestrial relations. This was a
mentintheorganizationofscientificresearchandprovided period of great activity, of exchanges or borrowing of
a model for many later organizations around the globe. methods between disciplines, and ofchanges ofapproach
Among the areas strongly supported by the CIW were that occurred across many sub-disciplines almost simulta
investigationsofthe Earthandits relations to the Sunand neously. Theseevents set the stage for the dramatic eraof
planetary SysteDL the Intematiooal Geophysical Year, the plate-tectonic
Thisvolumeis theresultofa 3-day symposimnthatmet revolution,and space-based studies ofthe Earth. The first
in June 1992. The symposium's goal was to explore the half of the century was critical in the history of the
historyofthe geosciencesandastrophysicsduring the first geoIspace scieDCes,andyetithas beenthe subjectoflittle
60yearsofthe Institution. Wewantedto stimulatediscus historical scrutiny.
sion of several historical questions. First, how did the The development of the institutions that support the
complexofthegeo/spacesciencesdevelopinthiscentury? goo/space sciences bas been just as important as the
Second,whatkindsofenvironmentsandstrategiessupport development of the instruments, methods, and theories
ed its development? Third, what have the relations been associated with them. The geo/space sciences are proto
between science and its sponsors, and how have new typical big sciences. They demand world-wide data net
disciplineeandresearchfieldsdevelopedininterdisciplinary works, big andexpensive instnunents, sizeable staffs, and
settings? The maingoalofthe symposiumwas to contrib commitment ofrelatively large budgets·over long periods
ute to understanding the historical development of the of time. Their products may be either quite abstract and
goo/space sciencesattheCarnegieInstitutionofWashing uselessorofdirectcommercialutility. Institutionalsupport
ton: important scienceinanimportant setting. We had no cannotbeignoredinthehistoryofthesesciences.Between
illusion, and this volume has no pretension, to answering 1900and 1950,thetypes ofsponsorsofgeo/space science
these questions in a general way. But we hope to have andtheirrelativeimportancechangedsignificantly: private
movedin this direction. researchinstitutions,foundations,nationalandstategovern
Thesymposiumcenteredonthe developmentofresearch ments, oil and mineral companies, and the military. In
programs in the goo/space sciences at this one institution, 1900, private research institutions were critical. Among
andonthe evolutionoftheinstitutionalforms and policies these, theCIWwasoneofthebestendowed. Fora variety
withinwhichthesedevelopmentsoccurred.Thesciencesof of reasons that have never been adequately explored by
theEarthand ofnear-spacehave roots inearliercenturies. historians, a largefractionoftheCIW's supportofscience
Butduring the first halfofthe 20thcenturymany ofthese inits earlydecadeswasdirectedtothe geo/space sciences.
sciences witnessed significant instrumentational and From the Institution's founding, grants were awarded to
theoretical developments. During this period, geophysics outside researchers studying the Earth. Soon thereafter,
and geochemistry became widely recognized words and, three departments at the CIW became primary loci for
perhaps, disciplines. Inthis period, majordiscoveries were geo/space sciences: the Department ofTerrestrial Magne
tism(DTM)andtheGeophysicalLaboratory(GL),andthe
Mount Wilson Observatory. The DTM's efforts were
TheEarth,theHeavensandtheCarnegieInstitutionofWashington
focused very closely for the first few decades ona global
HistoryofGeophysicsVolume5
Copyright1994bytheAmericanGeophysicalUnion. geomagnetic survey, to make possible a mathematical
xi